The
blog post for this week is written by Jeanne Whitehurst, who has completed her
Certificate of Egyptology from the University of Manchester. She moved to Egypt
over ten years ago, just before the revolution. Initially, she lived in Luxor,
overlooking Karnak Temple, but now she lives in Aswan overlooking the First
Cataract. She was extremely fortunate to have worked with Ted Brock on the
sarcophagus of Merenptah (KV 8) as a volunteer.
As most
of the objects from ancient Egypt found in museums around the world come from
tombs, it is appropriate that we investigate the legacy that the Egyptians left
us to gain more understanding of life in Pharaonic Egypt. We need to consider
that most of these objects came from the top 20% of the population. They wanted
to take personal belongings or substitutes with them into the afterlife, and we
are fortunate that we have such a variety of objects surviving besides
depictions on the walls in many tombs. The walls of tombs are decorated with
funerary processions with servants carrying many objects such as furniture,
jewellery, cosmetics, games, and clothes (fig. 1). Family scenes show chairs with favourite
objects under them, such as wigs, mirrors, and scribal cases. In discussing all
of the “treasures” in this blog, we cannot be sure whether the objects were
used in everyday life or specifically made for the afterlife. Clothing is the
main exception as we can see signs of wear.
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| Fig. 1: Funeral procession in the tomb of Ramose |
Cosmetics
For the ancient Egyptians, personal
hygiene was important, which is why they regularly used cosmetics, perfumes,
and oils. From Predynastic times, stone cosmetic palettes, most often made from
mudstone, were used to grind green malachite (an oxide of copper), red ochre, and
kohl, which is mostly made of the mineral galena (a dark mineral compound
mainly consisting of lead sulfide). These were then mixed with resins, oils, or
fats to form a paste that could be applied to the face as eye makeup. The
process of grinding also left circular indentations in the stone, which today
can often retain traces of ancient pigments. After the end of the Old Kingdom, kohl
or soot was the preferred pigment. The cosmetics were kept in beautifully
decorated containers, individually for kohl with round-headed applicators made
of wood, bronze, haematite, obsidian, or glass. Wooden cosmetic containers are
among my favourite objects, especially those in the shape of swimming girls,
ducks, or servant girls (fig.
2).
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| Fig. 2: Wooden "swimming girl" |
Besides having beautiful containers,
these cosmetics not only had a cosmetic element but also a health benefit. Spell
125 from the Book of the Dead prohibits one from speaking unless they “clean,
dressed in fresh clothes, shod in white sandals, painted with eye-paint,
anointed with the finest oil of myrrh.” The gods are regularly depicted wearing
eye make-up, as are the souls in the afterlife. Cosmetics are among the most
common items placed in tombs as grave goods.
Jewellery
Most
people admire jewellery from ancient Egypt, not only for aesthetic reasons but
the intricate workmanship. From Predynastic times through to the Roman era, Egyptians
adorned themselves in a variety of embellishments including rings, earrings,
bracelets, pectorals, necklaces, crowns, girdles, and amulets.
Most Egyptians wore some type of jewellery during their lifetimes, and almost
every Egyptian was buried with some form of adornment. The
materials chosen and the quality of workmanship often marked the status of
the owner or wearer. The elaborate gold masks and inlaid pectorals of the Twenty-first
and Twenty-second Dynasty kings of Tanis (ca. 1069–945 BC) and the intricate
Middle Kingdom girdles and bracelets from the burials of princesses at Lahun
and Dahshur were of far different quality than a simple strung clay bead found
in a poor individual’s burial. Some simpler objects such as single strung
barrel-shaped carnelian swrt beads were also common in elite
burials. The jewellery was commonly made from gold and semi-precious stones,
such as carnelian, lapis lazuli, and turquoise. The Egypt Centre has four beautiful,
beaded collars, which are potentially from the Royal tombs at Amarna (fig. 3).
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| Fig. 3: Amarna collar with central heart amulet |
Mirrors
In
ancient Egypt, mirrors were highly polished discs of copper, bronze, or gold to
represent the sun with handles in the form of a papyrus stem or the figure of
Hathor, an Egyptian goddess associated with beauty and rebirth. It was thought that
looking into a mirror gave you a glimpse into the afterlife and conversely from
the afterlife you could see everyday life.
Wigs and hairpieces
The
elite had elaborate wigs and extensions usually made of human hair. Women’s wigs were adorned with braids and
gold, hair-rings, and ivory ornaments making them more stylish than men’s wigs
(fig. 4).
Ultimately, the more elaborate and involved the wig was, the higher the social rank.
Not many wigs have been found in tombs.
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| Fig. 4: Jasper hair ring from Riqqeh |
Furniture
Early stools for ceremonial purposes
were just squared blocks of stone. Later stools of the wealthy often had seats
made from animal skins, woven leather strips, or plant materials. Some were
painted and featured carved animal legs. They were commonly decorated with
household gods such as Bes and Taweret, who it was thought would protect them
when sleeping (fig. 5).
The ancient Egyptians also used folding stools; one of the most stunning
examples of a folding stool is the one found in Tutankhamun’s tomb. In
time, the stool developed with the addition of a back and arms into chairs.
Footstools were of wood. The royal footstool was painted with the figures of
traditional enemies of Egypt so that the pharaoh might symbolically tread his
enemies under his feet. Carvings of animal feet on straight chair legs were
common, as were legs shaped like those of animals. Once again, Tutankhamun’s
throne and footstool show not only high craftmanship but that it had been used
in life as it had his initial throne name, Tutankhaten, instead of his later
name, Tutankhamun, inscribed on it!
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| Fig. 5: Furniture leg with a depiction of Taweret |
Wooden bed frames were
rectangular and slanted downwards, with footboards. Often the legs of the bed
were carved into lions or bulls. At the head of the bed was a headrest
consisting of a semicircular upper piece supported by columns fixed to a base (fig. 6). The base of the
skull rested on the headrest. These headrests were made of wood, ivory, or even
stone. Leather and fabrics were often used to upholster the bed. Materials were
woven through the open part of the frame to support mattresses. The beds of
some pharaohs were made of gold and the footboards were richly decorated.
Couches were very similar to beds except they did not have footboards and were
shorter. The
great beds found in the tomb of Tutankhamen were put together with bronze hooks
and staples so that they could be dismantled or folded to facilitate storage
and transportation; there was also a folding wooden bed with bronze hinges. Furniture
existed in small quantities and when the pharaohs toured their lands, they took
their beds with them.
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| Fig. 6: Wooden headrest |
Games
The
four games most commonly found in ancient Egypt were Mehen, Senet, Twenty Squares,
and Hounds and Jackals, which were sometimes closely associated and played on opposite
sides of the same boards. Mehen, meaning “the coiled one,” was played during
the Predynastic Period and the Old Kingdom (ca. 3100–2130 BC). Its board
depicts a coiled snake divided into segments, which refers to a protective
deity who wrapped around the sun god Re during his journey through the night.
The spiral imitates the natural posture of the snake protecting its (or her)
eggs. The best description of the game appears in a picture in the tomb of
Hesre at Saqqara (ca. 2700 BC). Senet is the most famous game from ancient Egypt, where it
was in favour from the Predynastic Period to at least the Late
Period (ca.
3100–332 BC). Its board is characterized by a pattern of three rows of ten
squares, with the last five squares consistently decorated (fig. 7). The players
moved their pieces in a boustrophedon (S-shaped) direction. In the New Kingdom
(ca. 1550–1070 BC), Senet, which means “passing,” became associated with the
journey to the afterlife. Scenes of Senet-playing are included among the
vignettes of Chapter 17 of the Book of the Dead and
are magnified on the walls of tombs.
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| Fig. 7: Tutankhamun's senet board |
The Metropolitan Museum
in New York Accession Number: 26.7.1287a–kk has
an exquisite box of Hounds and Jackals (fig. 8). The board rests on the four legs of a
bull; one is completely restored and another only partially. There is a drawer
with a bolt to store the playing pieces: five pins with the heads of hounds,
and five with the heads of jackals. The board is shaped like an axe-blade, and
there are fifty-eight holes in the upper surface with an incised palm tree
topped by a shen-sign in the centre.
Clothes
Strangely,
not many have been found in tombs, but when they are they were usually made of
linen and turned inside out. Perhaps clothes were cut up for mummy bandages or
as there were many depictions of clothes on the walls of the tombs, it was
thought unnecessary.
One of
my personal treasures is “The Swansea Egypt Centre”, the privilege of looking
at their artefacts with such insights into their history, and the delivery of
highly informative courses in such a friendly manner. Thank you very much to all
the staff who have given me so much pleasure in learning about ancient Egypt!
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