The blog post for this week is written by Jeanne Whitehurst, who
has completed her Certificate of Egyptology from the University of Manchester.
She moved to Egypt nearly ten years ago, just before the revolution. Initially,
she lived in Luxor, overlooking Karnak Temple, but now she lives in Aswan
overlooking the First Cataract. She was extremely fortunate to have worked with
Ted Brock on the sarcophagus of Merenptah (KV 8) as a volunteer.
This was the
last session of our five-week course on Deir el-Medina, which was superbly
presented by Dr Ken Griffin and I thoroughly enjoyed the course. I can’t wait
until the next one! Thanks also go to Sam Powell who administrates the course
patiently and efficiently.
The village
of Deir el-Medina, which nestles between the high Western mountains and the
hill of Qurnet Murai on the West Bank of Luxor, was for almost five centuries a
New Kingdom workmen’s village, home to the community of craftsmen working on
the royal tombs in The Valley of the Kings. The village is unusual as the tombs
were built around the village itself, whereas settlements were usually built on
the East side of the Nile and the tombs (the land of dead) in the West. From
the village, the workmen followed a trail north to the top of the Western
Mountain and down into the Valley of the Kings to construct and decorate the
tomb of the reigning pharaoh (fig. 1). Nowadays, it is thought that the craftsmen also
built tombs for the queens and nobles, besides making funerary equipment. The
workmen lived in houses whose stone foundations still remain. It is possible that this planned community was
founded by Amenhotep I (c. 1541–1520 BC).
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| Fig. 1: Necropolis of Deir el-Medina |
The tombs in
the Western part of the village date principally to the Nineteenth and
Twentieth Dynasties (1292–1189 BC) while the Eastern Cemetery, whose tombs are lesser
known, belong to the Eighteenth Dynasty. The first were thought to have been
built during the beginning of the dynasty. At the lower level are the poorer
tombs devoted to children. Adolescents were placed in cavities, which were
accessed by a well shaft. Children’s tombs were just small pits covered in
stones. Not all were buried in coffins, but in common domestic pottery jars or
amphorae, in baskets, in chests, or boxes. The poorest graves belong to still-born
babies who were buried under house floors in small pots with small vessels
filled with food for the afterlife.
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| Fig. 2: The Western Necropolis |
The
settlement’s tombs had a basic plan: at ground level there was a small open
courtyard and a vaulted chapel of one or more rooms surmounted by a brick
pyramid topped with a stone pyramidion. This would be open to the villagers who
would have banquets and honour their ancestors there. A shaft or occasionally stairs in the courtyard led into an
underground passage and a decorated burial chamber or chambers, depending on
the individual’s means and status. The main subterranean chamber usually had a
vaulted roof and was very brightly decorated. Stelae were set into the mud-brick
walls and a large stela, commemorating the deceased and depicting his funeral,
was placed in the courtyard. Some workers had multiple tombs, constructed at
different times, which means a depiction of the tomb owner did not necessarily
mean he was buried there. The scenes, unlike the tombs of the nobles, do not
often show everyday life but instead are devoted to texts and scenes from the Book of the Dead, thus somewhat copying
religious scenes that appear on the walls of royal tombs (fig. 3).
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| Fig. 3: Osiris in the tomb of Pashedu (TT 3) |
The tomb of
Sennedjem (TT 1), which lies within the Western Cemetery, was discovered intact
in 1886. The opening and clearing of this intact burial was overseen by Gaston
Maspero, the head of the Antiquities Service at the time. It is one of the best-preserved
and most famous tombs in the village, which is used frequently to illustrate
talks. Twenty mummies, nine of which were in coffins and eleven only wrapped in
linen, were found inside the vaulted burial chamber measuring 5.12 m by 2.61
m, and 2.40 m high.
Sennedjem
was a “servant in the place of truth” who lived in the village at the time of
Ramesses II. He shared this “house of eternity” with his wife Iyinofreti, their
son Khonsu, daughter in-law Tamakhet, the lady Isis, who was the wife of their
second son Khabekhnet (who had his own tomb built next to Sennedjem’s), together
with their grandchildren. Both Sennedjem and his wife lived into old age.
Iyinofreti’s mummy, now in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, is that of a
woman of approximately 75 years of age, while her husband resides in Cairo. It
is sad to think that this family who had lain together for millennium are now
housed in different museums. Scenes include the mummy of Sennedjem on a
funerary bier with a lion’s head and paws, two birds (kites) at each end,
representing Isis (at the foot) and Nephthys (at the head). Underneath is a
party with guests being served by servants. One is placing a perfumed cone on
the head of a guest. Another scene shows Sennedjem being mummified by a priest wearing
a mask of Anubis on the same lion headed bed. We have a scene where the pair
are harvesting crops in the fields of Hetep, while at the bottom register the channels
of the Nile are flowing all around the scene. In the top register, Sennedjem
and his wife are worshipping the gods including Ra- Horakhty, Osiris and Ptah.
At the very top is Ra-Horakhty in his solar boat with two baboons worshipping
him at either side. Baboons were used to welcome the new sun in the morning. We
have a scene where Sennedjem and his wife are before the ten guardians of the
gates. It was important to know the name of each guardian before they could
pass into the afterlife. Additionally, the couple are shown worshipping all the
gods of the sky with a night sky full of stars. Lastly, Sennedjem is shown at
the side of double doors, which lead him into the afterlife (fig. 4).
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Fig. 4: Sennedjem at the doors to the afterlife
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Possibly one
of the oldest tombs at Deir el-Medina (TT 340) is that belonging to Amenemhat,
a Servant in the Place of Truth, dating from the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty,
which was discovered by Bernard Bruyère in 1925. It consists of a tiny vaulted
chamber located below a courtyard, which is reached by some steps. The painting
within the tomb are unfinished, enabling us to see the stages of its development.
The colours are still fresh, showing outlines being drawn with hematite (red).
The style of decoration is simple and repetitive with scenes that are
exclusively religious or funerary. Tomb 340, like all the local tombs, was
initially dug into the limestone rock before the interior was lined with
bricks. This technique made it possible to obtain an almost smooth surface, with
the surface subsequently lined with a sealer of mud (a coating of earth and
straw) and then plaster
(gypsum).
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Fig. 5: Brightly painted scenes in the tomb of Sennedjem
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Since these
are workmen’s tombs and as I have a great interest in technology, I would like
to share my experience of making the paints. However, instead of applying them
to walls, painting on papyrus. The paints are created according to the formula
of Alfred Lucas, a
chemist who was part of the team working with Howard Carter on the tomb of
Tutankhamun.
There are
six main colours used in ancient Egyptian tombs (figs. 5–6). White obtained from gypsum
(CaSO 4-2(H 2O)), commonly known as plaster of paris; lampblack, a carbon black
obtained from soot; two colours obtained from iron ore, hematite, also spelled
as haematite ( Fe₂O₃), widespread in rocks and soils, which gives us the red or
brown, while yellow is obtained from limonite (FeO·nH₂O). The last two are
extracted from copper ore. Malachite is a green copper carbonate hydroxide mineral with a
chemical composition of Cu2(CO3)(OH)2 and lastly, azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2, the
beautiful blue. There
is also azurite-malachite, which is a blend of the two copper minerals. The
minerals are easy to grind, using a pestle and mortar, covering the mineral with water to allow the debris to
rise to the top. The minerals are then drained through a linen cloth. It is
then mixed with gum arabic, a term that does not indicate a particular source
but is a natural gum consisting of the hardened sap of two species of the
acacia tree (Acacia senegal and Vachellia seyal). Previously, egg albumen was
used to bind the paint. Paint colours vary. Gypsum can be very pale and
numerous coats may be needed to be applied to obtain a deep white. Rather
than mixing shades on the papyrus, it was easier to mix them in containers. One
problem with the paints is that they dry quickly, although they are easy to
apply.
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Fig. 6: Sennedjem in adoration
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If
we look at the beautiful tomb scene of Sennedjem and his wife in front of the
sycamore tree goddess, notice the clothes, how the shape is filled in gypsum
(white) but it is the use of hematite (brown) in the lines which bring the kilt
and dress to life (fig. 7).
All figures and the tree are outlined in either brown or black, which makes
them stand out from the background that is covered in limonite (yellow) painted
over a white base, which is visible on Sennedjem’s arm and the tree goddess’s
torso. The figs are painted brown, but it is the position of the small black
ellipses that seems to show them hanging naturally.
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Fig. 7: Sycamore tree goddess in the tomb of Sennedjem
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The end of
the reign of Ramesses III and the beginning of Ramesses IV was a time of social
unrest. Only the privileged, such as Inherkhau (TT 229 & TT 359), who held
the titles “Foreman in the Place of Truth in the West of Thebes” and “Director
of the Works of the Lord of the Two Lands” were lucky or indeed have the
authority or necessary connections to commission or construct two tombs. In his
tomb, Inherkhau is accompanied by its wife Wabet (“the Pure”) and many
children. Wabet carries the common title of “Mistress of the House”, but also
of “Chantress of Amun” and “Chantress of Hathor”. It is rare to know the names
of the painters who decorated the tomb, Hormin and Nebnefer, but we know them
because they signed their names.
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Fig. 8: Painted ceiling in the tomb of Inherkhau
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Unusually
there are two chambers; one like an antechamber, with many offering scenes, and
the other the burial chamber, which is full of religious depictions. In the
antechamber, the ceiling is covered with beautifully coloured geometric designs
depicting cows, possibly the goddess Hathor (fig. 8). Additionally, in a damaged scene, Inherkhau
and his wife are offering incense before “The lords of the West”, i.e., the
royal ancestors, including female members. The first figure on the upper
register is Amenhotep I, possibly the founder of Deir el-Medina, while his
mother Ahmose-Nefertari is first on the lower one. They were both worshipped within
the village. Another depiction is the journey north to Abydos by boat, the cult
centre of Osiris, which is similar to the practice of Muslims travelling to
Mecca. There is a lovely scene of Inherkhau and his wife seated while their
children bring offerings to them. Another in the burial chamber has a powerful
scene of Ra changing into the great cat of Heliopolis who every night had to
fight his enemy, the snake Apophis with a knife, which he achieved to ensure
that Ra (the sun) will rise every morning. Another scene here is a blind harpist
playing to the couple (we know he is blind as his eyes are closed). It was
thought this depiction would help to communicate more easily with the dead.
Then there is his ba-bird, a form of
the spirit of the dead, with Inherkhau opposite with his arms in adoration (fig. 9).
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Fig. 9: The ba of Inherkhau
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Ipuy (TT
217) was a sculptor during the reign of Ramesses II. He was married to Nebtiunu and has a beautifully decorated
painted tomb with unique scenes. It has a naive painting of laundrymen washing
by the Nile, another showing the preparation of produce and a donkey carrying
goods. Donkeys had to carry all the water used by the community as there was no
water supply. A busy scene is of many workmen making coffins, carving chairs and
stools with the feet of geese. It even shows a workman cutting down a tree. Another is of
an over-sized shrine with workers climbing all over it. One workman appears to
have dropped a mallet onto another below, who is shown rubbing his head! In one
corner a workman is fast asleep! The Metropolitan Museum in New York has two scenes
from the tomb. The first shows a workman with a dog behind him as he draws
water with a shaduf in a garden. There is a luxurious house in the background
with a column by the door with steps leading up to it. The other is making
wine, with some workmen picking the grapes and placing them in woven baskets. Other
men then tread the grapes, holding onto a rope to stop them falling into the
juice as it forms underneath. My favourite scene is of Ipuy and his wife, the
latter having a cat under her chair while Ipuy has a kitten trying to pluck his
sleeve (fig. 10).
Cats are always shown as tabby (striped) as all Egyptian cats were indeed
striped and much larger than the domestic ones of today.
In conclusion, Deir el-Medina is among the most important
archaeological sites in Egypt because of the wealth of information it provides
on the daily lives of the people who lived there. It is a glimpse of a society
who were not royal or noble but mostly respected, a parallel of the middle
class today. The villagers lived closely together in that long-ago time when it
was known as the Place of Truth, where the people built and protected the
eternal homes of their kings.
Bibliography:
For a great site containing images of many of the tombs at Deir el-Medina, see https://www.ifao.egnet.net/bases/archives/ttdem/
Bierbrier,
Morris 1982. The tomb-builders of the
pharaohs. A Colonnade Book. London: British Museum Publications.
Cherpion,
Nadine and Jean-Pierre Corteggiani 2010. La
tombe d’Inherkhâouy (TT 359) à Deir el-Medina, 2 vols. Mémoires publiés par
les membres de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale 128. Cairo: Institut
français d’archéologie orientale.
Keller,
Cathleen A. 2001. A family affair: the decoration of Theban Tomb 359. In Davies,
W. V. (ed.), Colour and painting in
ancient Egypt, 73–93. London: British Museum Press.
Lucas,
A. 1962. Ancient Egyptian materials and
industries, 4th ed. Edited by J. R. Harris. London: Edward Arnold.
Mahmoud
Abd el-Qader, Adel 2011. Catalogue of
funerary objects from the tomb of the Servant in the Place of Truth Sennedjem
(TT1): ushabtis, ushabtis in coffins, ushabti boxes, canopic coffins, canopic
chests, cosmetic chests, furniture, dummy vases, pottery jars, and walking
sticks, mainly from Egyptian Museum in Cairo and Metropolitan Museum of Art of
New York. Edited by Sylvie Donnat. Série Corpus; Bibliothèque générale 37. Cairo:
Institut français d’archéologie orientale.
