Mummification and Coffins in Ancient Egypt

The blog post for this week is written by Averil Anderson. Averil has been fascinated by Egypt ever since she visited the 1972 Tutankhamun exhibition in London. In 1990, she visited Egypt for the first time on a Nile Cruise and fell in love with the place, the history, the atmosphere and the people. Eventually, Averil took her interest a step further with the University of Manchester Online Certificate and Diploma. This luckily led her to The McManus Museum Dundee's Collections Unit where she has been volunteering since 2011 researching the Egyptology Collection.

I am writing this blog post about Week 3 of Ken Griffin’s Funerary Artefacts of Ancient Egypt course (for which I am very grateful in these Lockdown times!) with this week dealing with Mummification and Coffins, which I find fascinating. First up is mummification, which is not everyone’s favourite topic, but disposal of the dead and its accompanying ritual is an essential part of the fabric of society,  especially so in the hot climate of Egypt. To the Egyptians, it was vital to keep the body intact beyond death since he body harboured the ba and the ka. It was, therefore, vital to turn the corpse into a sꜥh (eternal and perfect image of the deceased). The body was mummified primarily to stop deterioration, with the dry climate and burial in the sand naturally mummifying the dead. The first known mummification was at Hierakonpolis, c. 3700 BC, but mummification was carried out over a 4000-year period of Egyptian history. Over time, rituals became part of the process accompanied with mummification materials having religious and preservative functions.

Fig. 1: Mummy covering (W894)

A great example of the art is the mummy of Ramesses III, who died during the Harem Conspiracy. We saw a mummy covering (W894), which shows a priest dressed as Anubis attending to the mummy resting on a bier. The priest is aided Isis and Nephthys (fig. 1). Mummification is said to take 70 days, although there is no complete ancient text that gives comprehensive instructions. We do have scenes on coffins, in tombs, and on papyrus, such as NMS A1956.313. Mummification would have developed over time, so one single source could give us the whole picture. The most well-known written sources are those of Herodotus (450 BCE) and Diodorus Siculus (100 BCE), which were unlikely to be first hand accounts. Herodotus tells us there were three forms of mummification depending on the wealth of the deceased’s family. The most costly and elaborate version is described as follows:

“They take first a crooked piece of iron, and with it draw out the brain through the nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while the skull is cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs; next they make a cut along the flank with a sharp Ethiopian stone, and take out the whole contents of the abdomen, which they then cleanse, washing it thoroughly with palm wine, and again frequently with an infusion of pounded aromatics. After this they fill the cavity with the purest bruised myrrh, with cassia, and every other sort of spicery except frankincense, and sew up the opening. Then the body is placed in natron for seventy days, and covered entirely over. After the expiration of that space of time, which must not be exceeded, the body is washed, and wrapped round, from head to foot, with bandages of fine linen cloth, smeared over with gum, which is used generally by the Egyptians in the place of glue, and in this state it is given back to the relations, who enclose it in a wooden case which they have had made for the purpose, shaped into the figure of a man. Then fastening the case, they place it in a sepulchral chamber, upright against the wall. Such is the most costly way of embalming the dead.”

For the second type, Herodotus says that “If persons wish to avoid expense, and choose the second process, the following is the method pursued:- Syringes are filled with oil made from the cedar-tree, which is then, without any incision or disembowelling, injected into the abdomen. The passage by which it might be likely to return is stopped, and the body laid in natron the prescribed number of days. At the end of the time the cedar-oil is allowed to make its escape; and such is its power that it brings with it the whole stomach and intestines in a liquid state. The natron meanwhile has dissolved the flesh, and so nothing is left of the dead body but the skin and the bones. It is returned in this condition to the relatives, without any further trouble being bestowed upon it.”

The third and most basic: “The third method of embalming, which is practised in the case of the poorer classes, is to clear out the intestines with a clyster, and let the body lie in natron the seventy days, after which it is at once given to those who come to fetch it away.”

One can only imagine this was a delicate and somewhat smelly process that most people would be happy to hand over to professionals. We must remember that any mummification would have been for the wealthy in society and not the average Egyptian. We also hear that during the Late Period mummification could last between 20–70 days. The stelae of Psamtek, son of Iahweben (610 BC), unusually tells us his date of birth, his length of life, his date of death, and that he spent 32 days in the pr-nfr being made ready for his burial. We have developed our knowledge about mummification through mummy unwrappings, and now the non-destructive radiography and computerised tomography (CT) scanning. There has also been a modern mummifications by Dr Bob Brier to test the theories. He was due to come to talk to Egyptology Scotland Kelvingrove in August, but sadly this has been postponed as with so many things.

Fig. 2: Deir el-Bahari shroud (W922)

The mummy was first washed soon after death with a solution of natron salt in the purification tent (i͗bw n wꜥb). Horus and Thoth are often depicted purifying the deceased or the Pharaoh. Additionally, some goddesses perform the nyny rite/gesture on the deceased, as can be seen in the tomb of Tutankhamun or in the doorways to some tombs in the Valley of the Queens. In the wꜥbt or pr nfr, the brain was removed along with the other internal organs, The heart was the only organ to remain in the body as it was the seat of intellect and memory.  The liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines were embalmed separately before the body was then washed again with palm wine and completely covered in natron (changed daily according to Salima Ikram) for 40 days. The body was then packed with linen, sawdust, earth, and aromatic resins to give the body shape. The resins and bitumen also protected the body against moisture. The eyes (replaced with onions or rock crystal) and eyebrows were spruced up and even prosthetic limbs (BM EA 29996) and finger coverings could be included to make the body whole for the afterlife.

Fig. 3: Mummy label (W549)

Mummies then were wrapped in linen, often bed sheets but there is an example in Lyon of a sail being used. Wrappings came in five different qualities from fine to coarse. Incantations would be said as the body was wrapped, right down to the individual fingers and toes, while amulets and spells from the Books of the Dead were often enclosed. An example is W922 from the Egypt Centre (fig. 2). The mummy mask (W917) was a vital piece of the mummy trappings, painted in an image of the deceased, which also provided additional protection for the head. In the Graeco-Roman Period, mummy labels (W549) were common, often telling us about the deceased (fig. 3). We must also note the disposal of any “waste products” and the funerary meal, which were gathered together and buried in a deposit near the tomb. This is perhaps also shown on tomb walls, such as that of Ramose (TT 55), as the mysterious “tekenu”, a human shaped bundle on a sledge. The tekenu was something I only heard about recently and I wonder if any “body” shaped bundles have ever been found? Another rabbit hole to wander down…

Fig. 4: Old Kingdom coffin from Giza (BM EA 71620)

The four (or maybe up to 6 according to recent discoveries at Saqqara) canopic jars contained the following organs:

Son of Horus

Depiction

Associated Organ

Protective Deity

Orientation

Qebehsenuef	Falcon headed	Intestines	Selket	West
Duamutef	Jackal Headed	Stomach	Neith	East
Imset(y)	Human headed	Liver	Isis	South
Hapy	Baboon headed	Lungs	Nephthys	North

The second half of the lecture concentrated on coffins. They tell us about the development of beliefs in the afterlife and religious thoughts. We can also examine the materials and techniques used in their production. The coffin was a container to protect the deceased from tomb robbers and scavenging animals, which enabled their wellbeing in the afterlife. The coffin with its religious scenes and magical texts enclosing the mummy ensured “a good burial”.

Fig. 5: Coffin depicting the goddess Nut (BM EA 75193)

The earliest coffins were a “house” for the deceased. They resembled buildings and had the palace façade design, as can be seen with BM EA 71620 (fig. 4). In the Old Kingdom, more emphasis was on the orientation and decoration of the coffin. The long sides were oriented east-west and the head of the deceased faced east. As time went on the insides of the coffins were decorated with funerary items, while the coffin was a miniature tomb in its own right. The lid was associated with the sky and the case with the earth. The goddess Nut is often seen stretching protectively over the deceased (W646), and the deceased was identified with Osiris or Re, both of whom were reborn each day (fig. 5). In the Old Kingdom, the complete coffin could be identified as the womb of Nut as she was the mother of Osiris (and therefore the deceased). She would symbolically give birth to him each day.

Fig. 6: Middle Kingdom coffin from Deir el-Bersha (BM EA 30842)

The concept of the coffin as a cocoon is apparent in the word for a coffin, sḥwt, meaning egg. A sarcophagus could also be part of the burial assemblage and would hold the coffin. There is some debate on the use of the word, although it is generally accepted that a sarcophagus is stone and rectangular. Anthropoid coffins, on the other hand, could be regarded as “coffins” rather than “sarcophagi”, regardless of the material, and are seen as a substitute for the deceased should their mummy be destroyed. The Egyptian word for a sarcophagus was nb-ankh, possessor or lord of life, reinforcing the idea that it aided in the renewal of life for the deceased . In the Predynastic Period, the body was placed in a shallow pit covered by matting. Wicker baskets and pot burials were later used. It was not until the Early Dynastic Period that coffins were commonplace. The first clearly established royal coffins date to the Third Dynasty. They were often plain with flat or vaulted lids. The decoration included false doors and eyes for the deceased to “see” out into the land of the living (MMA26.3.9a). Middle Kingdom coffins were decorated on the inside with a frieze of objects for everyday life (BM EA 30842) and included clothing, jewellery, weapons, perfume (much as we might include a loved ones treasured items in their coffin today), as well as the Coffin Texts (fig. 6). In the Twelfth Dynasty, the outside of the coffins were decorated with vertical and horizontal bands of hieroglyphs (W304). There were, however, regional variations between Beni Hasan, Deir el-Bersha, and Meir in the North and Asyut, Akhmim, and Thebes in the South.

Fig. 7: Rishi coffin (NMS A.1909.527.1 A)

In the Second Intermediate Period, the anthropoid coffin has become standard. It was an image of the deceased that could house not only his body but his ka and ba. They were of the rishi (feathered) type, again symbolising the protection offered (fig. 7). In the Eighteenth Dynasty, anthropoid coffins were painted white with bands of hieroglyphs running up the middle of the coffin and four bands around the sides imitating mummy wrappings (MMA 14.10.2a, b). The coffin of Amenhotep II shows the Sons of Horus between the texts. Other scenes can include funereal rituals while the lid usually depicting the outstretched figure Nekhbet or Nut. By the middle of the Eighteenth Dynasty, non-royal coffins were more commonly covered with black pitch, with the higher quality including gilded faces and bands made of gold (fig. 8).

Fig. 8: Eighteenth Dynasty coffin fragment (EC425)

New Kingdom coffins could be made of a variety of woods, including cedar, sycamore fig, or acacia. Gold and silver were reserved for kings. By the Nineteenth Dynasty, a mummy board was placed on the body of many burials showing the deceased in daily life. The “yellow” coffins were attested from Thebes and Memphis and were decorated with vignettes of spells 1 and 17 of the Book of the Dead. In anthropoid coffins, the forearms were crossed at the chest, with men having clenched fists and women having open hands. In the Twenty-first Dynasty, new compositions were added emphasising solar religion with the myth of Osiris, the revival of the deceased, and the triumph over Apophis. The colour palette also broadened, and scenes could now include vignettes from the Amduat or rituals associated with the Sed-festival (fig. 9).

Fig. 9: Interior coffin decoration of BM EA 22900

In the Third Intermediate Period, coffins continued to change. There were many regional variations at this time and individual  workshops can be identified. The coffins were now deep enough to hold the mummy with a flat or convex lid. Another style can be seen in BM EA 15655 and part of a similar coffin is in the Egypt Centre (W1044a & b). The inside of the coffin had texts from the Book of the Dead, usually accompanied by Nut (fig. 10). The outside depicted solar scenes and the Four Sons of Horus on the side walls, with a recumbent jackal atop the vaulted roof and falcons on the posts.

Coffin of Ankhpakhered (AB118)

In the Late Period, more texts are included. Passages from the Saite version of the Book of the Dead included less animated scenes. By the end of the Pharaonic Period, coffins varied considerably again according to region and foreign influences. In the Roman Period, W1042a shows us that decoration is less skilled, with the hieroglyphs often impossible to decipher. The emphasis was now placed on how it looked and not so much on what it said (fig. 11). Shrouds and other mummy coverings appear including the Fayum portraits.

Fig. 11: Roman Period coffin from Tuna el-Gebel (W1042a)

This has been a whirlwind trip through mummies and coffins giving a brief outline of the enormous and fascinating subject. I am now very keen to visit the Egypt Centre when life is able to return to “normal”, especially now I have had a look at the new database Abaset (currently only available to participants of the course) and can see there is much more coffin related material than the lecture allowed time for! I can’t wait for Ken’s next lecture on Magic and Ritual!

Bibliography

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