Treasures for the Dead

The blog post for this week is written by Jeanne Whitehurst, who has completed her Certificate of Egyptology from the University of Manchester. She moved to Egypt over ten years ago, just before the revolution. Initially, she lived in Luxor, overlooking Karnak Temple, but now she lives in Aswan overlooking the First Cataract. She was extremely fortunate to have worked with Ted Brock on the sarcophagus of Merenptah (KV 8) as a volunteer.

As most of the objects from ancient Egypt found in museums around the world come from tombs, it is appropriate that we investigate the legacy that the Egyptians left us to gain more understanding of life in Pharaonic Egypt. We need to consider that most of these objects came from the top 20% of the population. They wanted to take personal belongings or substitutes with them into the afterlife, and we are fortunate that we have such a variety of objects surviving besides depictions on the walls in many tombs. The walls of tombs are decorated with funerary processions with servants carrying many objects such as furniture, jewellery, cosmetics, games, and clothes (fig. 1). Family scenes show chairs with favourite objects under them, such as wigs, mirrors, and scribal cases. In discussing all of the “treasures” in this blog, we cannot be sure whether the objects were used in everyday life or specifically made for the afterlife. Clothing is the main exception as we can see signs of wear.

Fig. 1: Funeral procession in the tomb of Ramose

Cosmetics

For the ancient Egyptians, personal hygiene was important, which is why they regularly used cosmetics, perfumes, and oils. From Predynastic times, stone cosmetic palettes, most often made from mudstone, were used to grind green malachite (an oxide of copper), red ochre, and kohl, which is mostly made of the mineral galena (a dark mineral compound mainly consisting of lead sulfide). These were then mixed with resins, oils, or fats to form a paste that could be applied to the face as eye makeup. The process of grinding also left circular indentations in the stone, which today can often retain traces of ancient pigments. After the end of the Old Kingdom, kohl or soot was the preferred pigment. The cosmetics were kept in beautifully decorated containers, individually for kohl with round-headed applicators made of wood, bronze, haematite, obsidian, or glass. Wooden cosmetic containers are among my favourite objects, especially those in the shape of swimming girls, ducks, or servant girls (fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Wooden "swimming girl"

Besides having beautiful containers, these cosmetics not only had a cosmetic element but also a health benefit. Spell 125 from the Book of the Dead prohibits one from speaking unless they “clean, dressed in fresh clothes, shod in white sandals, painted with eye-paint, anointed with the finest oil of myrrh.” The gods are regularly depicted wearing eye make-up, as are the souls in the afterlife. Cosmetics are among the most common items placed in tombs as grave goods.

Jewellery

Most people admire jewellery from ancient Egypt, not only for aesthetic reasons but the intricate workmanship. From Predynastic times through to the Roman era, Egyptians adorned themselves in a variety of embellishments including rings, earrings, bracelets, pectorals, necklaces, crowns, girdles, and amulets. Most Egyptians wore some type of jewellery during their lifetimes, and almost every Egyptian was buried with some form of adornment. The materials chosen and the quality of workmanship often marked the status of the owner or wearer. The elaborate gold masks and inlaid pectorals of the Twenty-first and Twenty-second Dynasty kings of Tanis (ca. 1069–945 BC) and the intricate Middle Kingdom girdles and bracelets from the burials of princesses at Lahun and Dahshur were of far different quality than a simple strung clay bead found in a poor individual’s burial. Some simpler objects such as single strung barrel-shaped carnelian swrt beads were also common in elite burials. The jewellery was commonly made from gold and semi-precious stones, such as carnelian, lapis lazuli, and turquoise. The Egypt Centre has four beautiful, beaded collars, which are potentially from the Royal tombs at Amarna (fig. 3).

Fig. 3: Amarna collar with central heart amulet

Mirrors

In ancient Egypt, mirrors were highly polished discs of copper, bronze, or gold to represent the sun with handles in the form of a papyrus stem or the figure of Hathor, an Egyptian goddess associated with beauty and rebirth. It was thought that looking into a mirror gave you a glimpse into the afterlife and conversely from the afterlife you could see everyday life.

Wigs and hairpieces

The elite had elaborate wigs and extensions usually made of human hair. Women’s wigs were adorned with braids and gold, hair-rings, and ivory ornaments making them more stylish than men’s wigs (fig. 4). Ultimately, the more elaborate and involved the wig was, the higher the social rank. Not many wigs have been found in tombs.

Fig. 4: Jasper hair ring from Riqqeh

Furniture

Early stools for ceremonial purposes were just squared blocks of stone. Later stools of the wealthy often had seats made from animal skins, woven leather strips, or plant materials. Some were painted and featured carved animal legs. They were commonly decorated with household gods such as Bes and Taweret, who it was thought would protect them when sleeping (fig. 5). The ancient Egyptians also used folding stools; one of the most stunning examples of a folding stool is the one found in Tutankhamun’s tomb. In time, the stool developed with the addition of a back and arms into chairs. Footstools were of wood. The royal footstool was painted with the figures of traditional enemies of Egypt so that the pharaoh might symbolically tread his enemies under his feet. Carvings of animal feet on straight chair legs were common, as were legs shaped like those of animals. Once again, Tutankhamun’s throne and footstool show not only high craftmanship but that it had been used in life as it had his initial throne name, Tutankhaten, instead of his later name, Tutankhamun, inscribed on it!

Fig. 5: Furniture leg with a depiction of Taweret

Wooden bed frames were rectangular and slanted downwards, with footboards. Often the legs of the bed were carved into lions or bulls. At the head of the bed was a headrest consisting of a semicircular upper piece supported by columns fixed to a base (fig. 6). The base of the skull rested on the headrest. These headrests were made of wood, ivory, or even stone. Leather and fabrics were often used to upholster the bed. Materials were woven through the open part of the frame to support mattresses. The beds of some pharaohs were made of gold and the footboards were richly decorated. Couches were very similar to beds except they did not have footboards and were shorter. The great beds found in the tomb of Tutankhamen were put together with bronze hooks and staples so that they could be dismantled or folded to facilitate storage and transportation; there was also a folding wooden bed with bronze hinges. Furniture existed in small quantities and when the pharaohs toured their lands, they took their beds with them.

Fig. 6: Wooden headrest

Games

The four games most commonly found in ancient Egypt were Mehen, Senet, Twenty Squares, and Hounds and Jackals, which were sometimes closely associated and played on opposite sides of the same boards. Mehen, meaning “the coiled one,” was played during the Predynastic Period and the Old Kingdom (ca. 3100–2130 BC). Its board depicts a coiled snake divided into segments, which refers to a protective deity who wrapped around the sun god Re during his journey through the night. The spiral imitates the natural posture of the snake protecting its (or her) eggs. The best description of the game appears in a picture in the tomb of Hesre at Saqqara (ca. 2700 BC). Senet is the most famous game from ancient Egypt, where it was in favour from the Predynastic Period to at least the Late Period (ca. 3100–332 BC). Its board is characterized by a pattern of three rows of ten squares, with the last five squares consistently decorated (fig. 7). The players moved their pieces in a boustrophedon (S-shaped) direction. In the New Kingdom (ca. 1550–1070 BC), Senet, which means “passing,” became associated with the journey to the afterlife. Scenes of Senet-playing are included among the vignettes of Chapter 17 of the Book of the Dead and are magnified on the walls of tombs.

Fig. 7: Tutankhamun's senet board

The Metropolitan Museum in New York Accession Number: 26.7.1287a–kk has an exquisite box of Hounds and Jackals (fig. 8). The board rests on the four legs of a bull; one is completely restored and another only partially. There is a drawer with a bolt to store the playing pieces: five pins with the heads of hounds, and five with the heads of jackals. The board is shaped like an axe-blade, and there are fifty-eight holes in the upper surface with an incised palm tree topped by a shen-sign in the centre.

Fig. 8: Hounds and jackals game (Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Clothes

Strangely, not many have been found in tombs, but when they are they were usually made of linen and turned inside out. Perhaps clothes were cut up for mummy bandages or as there were many depictions of clothes on the walls of the tombs, it was thought unnecessary.

 

One of my personal treasures is “The Swansea Egypt Centre”, the privilege of looking at their artefacts with such insights into their history, and the delivery of highly informative courses in such a friendly manner. Thank you very much to all the staff who have given me so much pleasure in learning about ancient Egypt!