مدونة عن الآلهه و الإلهات في مصر القديمة

The blog post for this week has been written by Noura Seada, who has always been passionate about ancient Egyptian History. Ever since she was a little girl, Noura remembers collecting a lot of Pharaonic souvenirs to build up her own museum collection and imagined being a tour guide and describing them to tourists. At that early stage, Noura knew very well that this is what she wanted to be, so she did an undergraduate degree in Tourism Guidance and is now perusing post-graduate studies. Her main areas of interest are religion, animals, and disabled people in ancient Egypt. Noura is a previous contributor to this blog, writing our first ever Arabic entry.

 

كانت الديانة المصرية القديمة زاخرة بالعديد من الآلهه، البعض منها مألوف والأخر لم نسمع عنه من قبل. خلال هذه الدورة قام البروفسور كن جرفن بأستعراض ما يزيد عن مائتي إله وإلهه في الحضارة المصرية القديمة وذلك خلال خمسة أسابيع بمعدل محاضرة أسبوعيا. قبل البدء بالحديث عن الديانة المصرية القديمة قام البروفيسور كن بالإشارة للإلهه "أباست" والتي أطلق أسمها على الكتالوج الألكتروني لمركز مصر. ظهرت هذه الإلهه مرتين فقط داخل مقبرة بالواحات البحرية غرب مصر. لم يسمع الكثيرين منا عن هذه الإلهه من قبل والتي لعبت دور ابنه رع وكانت تتميز بأنها الوحيدة التي يعلو راسها قنفذ.

 

بدأ البروفسور كن جرفن حديثه بأنه لا يوجد عدد محدد للآلهه المصرية والتي يستحيل حصرها ولكن يقدر عددها لحوالي ١٢٠٠ إله وإلهه. كان كلا منهم يحمل العديد من الألقاب والتي يصل عددها ل ١٠٠,٠٠٠ لقب والتي تبرز دور وصفات الآلهه المصرية، فعلي سبيل المثال يحمل الإله "رع" وحده ما يقارب من ٧٥ لقب. هناك من يعتقد أن المصريين القدماء عبدوا الحيوانات وهذا إعتقاد خاطئ فلقد عبد المصريين القدماء الصفات والقدرات المميزة في هذه الحيوانات. فلقد عُبدت الإلهه حتحور في هيئة بقرة لما تمتلكه من صفات العطاء والأمومة لدورها الملموس في رعاية الأطفال وتزويدهم باللبن. كما عُبدت سخمت، إلهه الصيد والحرب في هيئة لبؤة لمهارتها في الصيد والقتال مما يثبت أن المصريين عبدوا القدرة المميزة داخل الحيوان وليس الحيوان نفسه.

 

شكل.١ الملكة نفرتاري تُقدم القرابين للإلهه حتحور

كما أحتوت الديانة المصرية القديمة على العديد من الأساطير والقصص التي تروي الخلق وولادة الآلهه علي يد الإله الخالق "أتوم". علي عكس العديد من الديانات الأخري، كانت الآلهه المصرية تموت أو تُقتل، فهناك كلا من الإله "أوزوريس" و"أبوفسيس". ولكن موت الإلهه لم يكن النهاية حيث كان المصريون القدماء يعتقدون في إعادة البعث والولادة مرة أخري من جديد.

 

كلمة "نثر" باللغة المصرية القديمة تعني الإله والتي لم تكن حكرا للآلهه فلقد أُستخدمت أيضا للأشخاص المؤلهين مثل الملك رمسيس الثاني ورمسيس الثالث وبالأضافة إلي المهندس أمحوتب وأمنحوتب أبن حابو، فكلا منهم تم تأليهه بعد وفاته وتم معاملته كإله وكانت لهم معابدهم الخاصة. كما كان هناك أيضا ما يعرف بالعفاريت في مصر القديمة والتي تعتبر نقطة خلاف بين العديد من علماء الأثار، فهناك من يري أنه لا يوجد فرق بين العفريت والإله في الديانة المصرية القديمة بينما يري أخرون أن كلمة "نثر" تُستخدم للآلهه الرئيسية وعفريت تُشير للآلهه الأقل أهمية مثل حامين الأبواب وآلهه ساعات الليل والنهار.  بينما في العصر البطلمي كان التأليه منتشر إلى حدا كبير فهناك ما يقارب من ٣٠٠ شخص تم تأليههم بسبب موتهم في مياه النيل غرقا وذلك لأنه كان يُنظر لها على انها ماء الخلق المقدسة.

 

شكل.٢ إمحوتب وأمنحوتب أبن حابو

كانت الآلهه تظهر بعدة أشكال مختلفة يمكن تقسمها لأربعة فروع رئيسية: شكل أدمي كامل – شكل حيوان كامل – مزيج من الأثنين معا مثل الإله "سوبك" يمكن أن يُمثل كأنسان كامل أو تمساح كامل أو أنسان برأس تمساح – كما ان الإله يمكن ان يكون مزيج من عدة حيوانات مختلفة مثل الإلهه "عممت" المفترسة والتي هي عبارة عن رأس تمساح و الجزء الامامي من جسد أسد و الجزء الخلفي من جسد فرس النهر. تلك الحيوانات هي الأكثر رعباً في مصر القديمة وعند المزج بينهم هذا يعني مزيد من الخوف والرعب. كما كانت تتمثل بعض الآلهه في هيئة شجرة وهناك أيضا آلهه معقدة في التكوين فعلي سبيل المثال الإله "رع خبر" يتكون من عدة آلهه معاً فيأخذ هيئة الإله "بس" ذوال ٩ رؤؤس ولديه ٣ أزواج من الأجنحة وذيل صقر وأيضا ذيل تمساح.

 

تُعرف الملوك المصرية القديمة بأبن الإله على الأرض، مما يجعلة مؤله وفي مرتبة عالية ومساوية لمنزلة الإله، فلقد كان يحمل الملك لقب "نثر نفر" الإله الجميل. بالأضافة إلى أن بعض الملوك والملكات نسجو بعض القصص حول ميلادهم أدعوا فيها أنهم المولود الإلهي في علي سبيل المثال ادعت الملكة حتشبسوت بمعبدها بغرفة الولادة بمعبدها بالدير البحري أنها من نسل الإله أمون لتعلن انها الأبنه والوريثة الشرعية للعرش.

 

كانت الآلهه تظهر في مجموعات مثل زوجين من الآلهه أو في هيئة ثالوث مكون من الإله الأب وزوجته الإلهه وأبنهم، كما ظهروا أيضا كمجموعة مكونة من ثمانية أو تسعة آلهه. فعند الحديث عن الثالوث فكان أشهرهم في الديانة المصرية القديمة هو ثالوث أبيدوس المُكون من أوزوريس وأيزيس وحورس، وأيضا ثالوث طيبة المُكون من أمون وموت وخونسو، ولا ننسي ثالوث منف المُكون من بتاح وسخمت ونفرتوم، وأخيرا ثالوث الفنتين المُكون من خنوم وساتت وأنوتت. العديد من هذه الآلهه التي سبق ذكرها والتي سيتم أستعرضها لاحقا في هذه المدونة، تم ذكرها لأول مرة في نصوص الأهرامات التي تعود لعصر الدولة القديمة.

شكل.٣ الملك رمسيس الثالث يُقدم القرابين لثالوث طيبة

إذا كان لديك سابق معرفة بسيط بحروف اللغة المصرية القديمة ستتمكن خلال زيارتك لإي موقع أثري من التعرف وقراءة أسم الآلهه وخاصة عندما تتخذ العديد من الآلهه نفس الهيئة فالنص المصاحب يُمكنك من التميز والتفريق بينهم. فهناك على سبيل المثال كلا من الإلهه "سخمت", "باقت", "منحيت" و "تفتوت" تظهر في هيئة لبؤة والطريقة الوحيدة للتمييز فيما بينهم يكون من خلال النص. كما هوالحال أيضا مع الإلهه " إبت" التي تشبه لحد كبير الإلهه "تاورت" في هيئة فرس النهر والتمساح.

 

تم تقسيم الآلهه إلى قسمين رجال ونساء، خلال الأسبوع الثاني قام البروفسور كن جرفن بتناول الآلهه الرجال مثل الإله " أش" المرتبط بالصحراء الغربية لأرتباطة بالإله "ست" ويظهر "أش" دائما مُمسكاً بختم مما يدل على مكانته العالية. بينما إله التحنيط "أنوبيس" والذي هو أحد أقدم وأكثرالآلهه شهرة بمصر القديمة وهو إبن الإلهه "نفتس". يحمل لقب "خنتي امنتو" متقدم الغرب لإرتباطه بالموت والجسد ويظهر عادةً برأس أبن آوي مثل الإله "وب واوت". كما تناول أيضا الإله" أتوم" الخالق وهو الذي خلق نفسه بنفسه، وعلي عكس العديد من الديانات الأخري كان إله الخلق في مصر القديمة رجل. يحمل "أتوم" لقب أب الآلهه ويظهر دائما مرتدي التاج المزدوج وأحيانا يظهر ككبش متقدم في العمر لأرتباطه بالشمس التي تأخذ ثلاثة أشكال ومراحل متمثلة في الإله "خبري" في الصباح و "رع" في الظهيرة و "أتوم" في المساء. بينما الإله "بس" يلعب دور حامي الأطفال والنساء الحوامل في مصر القديمة وذلك عن طريق مظهره المخيف الذي يساعد في ردع أي أذى قد يصيب الأم أو الجنين، كما أرتبط أيضا بالموسيقي والفرح.

 

شكل.٤ الإله بس بمعبد دندرة

فالجدير بذكر عند الحديث عن الإله "جب" إبن الإله "شو" والإلهه “تفنوت" أنه لا يوجد له مركز عبادة وذلك لأنه يجسد الأرض كما هو الحال مع "أتوم" والذي يمثل الشمس، فلا يخلو مكان من الأرض أومن سطوع الشمس لذلك كان يُعبد في كل مكان وليس له مركزعبادة محدد. بينما يعلو رأس الإله "ها" علامة الصحراء لأرتباطه أيضا بالصحراء الغربية مثله مثل الإله "أش". كان "ها" يلعب دور الحامي من الغزاة والقبائل كما أرتبط بالإله "ست". ولقد أطلق أسم الإله "ها" على ديناصور ليكون أسمه "ها جرفن". كان الإله "حابي" يجسد النيل والفيضان وهما مصدر الحياة والخير بمصر القديمة ولذلك أرتبط بفكرة الخلق ونمو النباتات. يظهر في شكل أدمي مميز ببطن وصدر متدلي. لدية العديد من الأشكال فهناك حابي الشمالي وحابي الجنوبي ويعلو رأسه زهرة اللوتس أوالبردي، كما يظهرمع علامة توحيد الأرضين "سما تاوي" على جانبي عرش الملك.

 

 يظهرالإله " حح" إله الأبدية مُمسكا بعلامة "حح" والتي تعني مليون والذي يمثل أكبر رقم توصل إليه المصري القديم، كما يظهر مُمسكا أيضا بعلامه السنين "رنبت" والذين يشكلان سويا معني ملايين السنين لتأكيد مفهوم الأبدية. ارتبط الإله "حكا" بالسحر لدوره كحامي للإله" أوزوريس" بأستخدام عصاه التي تأخذ شكل ثعبان. بدء الأهتمام بإله القمر" إيح" خلال الدولة الوسطي حيث أهتم المصريين القدماء ليس فقط بالشمس وأنما أيضا بالقمر فلقد تاٌثروا بالإله "سن" من حضارة بلاد الرافدين. يعلو رأس" إيح" قمروهلال كما هو الحال مع الإله "خونسو" و "تحوت" وهذا أيضا يؤكد ضرورة معرفة اللغة المصرية القديمة للتعرف على الآلهه. قام ملوك الأسرة ال١٨ بأستخدام أسم الإله "إيح" ونجده جاليا في أسم الملك "إيح مس" أحمس.

 

ثم تطرق للحديث في الأسبوع الثالث عن الآلهه النساء مثل"أحمس نفرتاري" وهي الملكة المؤلهه، أم الملك أمنحوتب الثاني والذي تم تأليهه أيضا. كانت زوجة الملك أحمس الثاني موحد الأرضين وطارد الهكسوس ,حملت لقب زوجة أمون والذي سبق أستخدامه مع العديد من الإلهات. ظهرت في أكثر من مائة منظر بالمقابر والمعابد المصرية. عادةً ما تظهرباللون الأسود وهو اللون المرتبط بالبعث وبالإله “أوزوريس". كانت أول ملكة تظهر مرتدية التاج الحتحوري المنتشر أيضا بين الإلهات. تظهر الإلهه "باقت" برأس صقر وهو الشئ الفريد من نوعه حيث لم يسبق أن أتخذت إلهه رأس صقر وعادةً ما تكون للآلهه الرجال كما تظهر"باقت "في بعض الأحيان برأس لبوءة مرتدية التاج الحتحوري.

شكل.٥ الملكة المؤلهة أحمس نفرتاري

كانت الإلهه " أمونت" تظهر مرتدية التاج الأحمر مثل الإلهه "نيت". كانت "أمونت" لها دور في تتويج الملك وإعطائه الحياة. كانت تمثل مع الإلهه “موت" زوجات الإله "رع" وهذا يفسرأرتبطها بطيبه بجانب كونها جزء من تاسوع هليوبليس. هناك أيضا الإلهه "بست" أم الإله "بس" والتي وجد لها العديد من التمائم بتل العمارنة. أشتهرت الإلهه "حتحور" بأن لديها العديد من المعابد أكثر من إي إلهه أخري وكان مركز عبادتها هو دندرة.  تُمثل الإلهه "ححت" الأبدية وعادة ما تظهر برأس قطة أو ثعبان أو قرد البابون أو لبؤة. كانت الإلهه "إبت" التي تمثل الشرق هي زوجة وأم الإله" من" معبود الصحراء الشرقية لذلك أرتبطت هي والإلهه “نوت" بالإله "رع" لدورهما في ولادة الشمس يوميا من الشرق.

 

كما كان هناك إلهه مرتبطة باللبن في مصر القديمة تدعي "إأت" والتي يصعب معرفه كيف تم تمثيلها في الفن المصري القديم ولكن هناك منظر بالدير البحري يحتوي على إلهه تحمل أواني اللبن ربما تكون "إأت". كما سبق ذكر إلهه الشرق "إبت" هناك أيضا إلهه الغرب "إمنتت" التي أرتبطت هي وأختها “باتت" بالموت كما أرتبطت أيضا بكلا من "حتحور" و "إيزيس. تظهر الإلهه "إيوسس" التي يعلو رأسها عادةً عقرب في مناظر تتويج الملك بالتاج الأزرق وقد أرتبطت بالإله الشمس"أتوم". كانت الإلهه " ككت" تمثل أحدي مكونات ومفاهيم الحياة الأربعة في مصر القديمة والمتمثلة في الخفي"أمون وأمونت" والماء "نون ونونت" والأبدية " حح وححت" والظلام "كك وككت". ومن الإلهات الأكثر شهرة في مصر القديمة "ماعت" إلهه العدل والحقيقة والتي يعلو رأسها ريشة وكانت مرتبطة بالإله "توت". كانت لهذه الريشة دور مهم في محكمة العدل للمتوفي حيث توزن أمام قلب المتوفي وإذا كان القلب أثقل من الريشة لا يستطيع المتوفي العبور للعالم الأخر ويؤكل بواسطة الإلهه " عممت". كما هو الحال مع إله الأرض "جب" وإله الشمس "أتوم" ليس ل "حتحور" مركزعبادة. وأخيرا الإلهه "مرت" زوجة "حابي" والتي تظهر أيضا في هيئتين مثل زوجها لتكون “مرت الشمالية" و " مرت الجنوبية”. ومما سبق ذكره خلال هذا الأسبوع يتضح أن في الديانة المصرية أغلبية الآلهه الرجال لهم نظائرهم من الأناث وفي معظم الأحيان تحمل نفس الأسم مع أضافة تاء التأنيث في النهاية.

شكل.٦ الإلهه العقرب سرقت

ثم تحدث البروفسور كن جرفن خلال الأسبوع الرابع عن الآلهه الحيوانات مثل "إيكر" إله الأرض المرتبط بالعالم السفلي ويتمثل في هيئة أسدين يعلوهما قرص الشمس أو مركب الإله. يلعب "إيكر" دوراً هاماً للغاية في حماية إله الشمس خلال رحلته في العالم الأخر وذلك من خلال تدميره لإله الفوضي "أبوفسيس" عدو إله الشمس "رع". يظهر "أبوفسيس" علي شكل ثعبان ضخم. هناك عدد كبير من الإلهه في النصوص الجنائزية المصرية القديمة لعبت دوراً هاما في مواجهه ومحاربه "أبوفسيس" بكلا من الحبال والساكاكين وغيرها من الأدوات لذلك كان يُهزم كل يوم ولكن لأنه يمتلك قدرات وصفات الثعبان من تغيير جلده فهو غير قابل للتدمير الأبدي ويستمر في العودة لمهاجمة إله الشمس أملا أن يبتلعه. وهناك نسخة كاملة من نص كتاب التغلب على "أبوفسيس" علي يد الإله "ست" بالمتحف البريطاني.

 

من أهم الآلهه المصرية القديمة والذي ذكر بحجر البليرمو هو الإله "أبيس" العجل.  تم أختيار العجل بناءا على مواصفات خاصة يجب توافرها، لعب دور هاما في نقل مومياء المتوفي على ظهره. تم الكشف عن مومياء محنطة للعجل أبيس في السرابيوم بجوارمنطقة سقارة. هناك أيضا الإله العجل" بوخس" المرتبط بالإله "مونتو" وقد تطلب أختياره صفات جسدية مميزة مثل وجه أسود وجسد أبيض.

 

بينما أرتبط الإله "بابي" قرد البابون المتعطش للدماء بالإله "ست" لدورة في تدميرالإله "أبوفسيس". وهناك أيضا الإله القرد "حردج ور" المرتبط بتتويج الملك وبالأحتفال بالعيد الثلاثين. يظهر "حردج ور" في وضعية القرفصاء ويده مفرودة للأسفل مما يميزه عن سائر قردة البابون الذين يظهرون في وضعية تعبد متمثلة في رفع اليد إلى السماء. ظهر الإله "بانب دجبت" زوج الإلهه "حتميهت" في هيئة أدمية محنطة ورأس كبش يعلوها تاج ال “هم هم" كما يظهر في كثير من الأحيان بأربعة رؤؤس. خلال أسطورة المواجهه بين "ست" و "حورس" دعم الكثير من الآلهه صعود الإله "حورس" على عرش مصر بينما دعم " بانب دجبت" الإله "ست".  

شكل.٧ الإله برأس الكبش با نب دجدت

هناك العديد من الإلهات البقرة مثل " حاست" و "إحت ورت" و" بات" وتظهر الأخيرة على صلاية الملك نرمر بقرونها الملتوية للداخل مما يميز مظهرها عن الإلهه البقرة "حتحور". لم يغفل المصريين القدماء تمثيل الأسماك في آلهتهم فهناك الإلهه" حات محيت" والتي تظهرفي هيئة سمكة كاملة أحيانا كما لم يغفل أيضا الضفدع الذي يظهر في تمثيل الإلهه "باقت" زوجة الإله حورس "حر ور". وختاما الإله الجعران "خبري" والذي يمثل إله الشمس في الصباح.

 

خلال الأسبوع الخامس، قام البروفسور كن جرفن بالتحدث عن الآلهه الأجنبية بالأضافة إلى الآلهه الأطفال. أستعرض عدد كبير منهم، حيث تأثرت الحضاره المصرية القديمة التي استمرت لما يقارب من ٣٥٠٠ سنة بالحضارات المختلفة في الشرق والغرب والذي بدوره أثر على الديانة المصرية. كان المصريون القدماء مُقبلين على فكره عبادة آلهة غير مصرية ودمجهم في الديانة المصرية خاصة خلال الدولة الحديثة الأسرة ١٩و٢٠.  بينما في العصر اليوناني الروماني نادرا ما تم الدمج بين الديانتين ولكن نجد ان الإله زيوس قد لعب دور أمون في بعض الأحيان. تم دمج الآلهة الأجنبية بالحضارة المصرية على أنهم أبناء وبنات الآلهه المصرية. في بعض الأحيان تم دمج إله أجنبي مع إله مصري لتكوين إله واحد كما هو الحال مع الإله "سبو حور" والإله "ست بال “. هناك العديد من اللوحات المصرية القديمة التي يظهر عليها العديد من الآلهه الأجنبية مثل اللوحة المعروضة بالمتحف البريطاني يظهر فيها ثلاثة رجال في وضع تعبد لثلاث آلهه أجنبية وإله مصري.

شكل.٨ لوحة الإلهه قادش تتوسط الإله من والإله رشف (BM EA 191)

لكن السؤال هنا ما الذي دفع المصريين القدماء لعبادة هذه الآلهه الأجنبية؟ هل تم عبادتهم في جميع أنحاء مصر أم في أماكن مخصصة؟ الأجابة على مثل هذه الأسئلة غير معروف، وربما السبب وراء ذلك أن بعض الأجانب الليبين والنوبين وأيضا الفرس كانوا يعيشون في مصر مما أدي لتأثرالمصريين بهم وبديانتهم أو ربما لأن العديد من المصريين القدماء عاشوا خارج البلاد وعند عودتهم أحضروا معهم العديد من الديانات الأجنبية. فعلي سبيل المثال هاجر الهكسوس للعمل في مصر بمجال التجارة وفي النهاية أصبحوا حكام البلاد خلال الأسرة ال ١٥ وعاصمتهم تل الضبعة ويوجد هناك معابد للآلهه الأجنبية مثل "بال “كما عبد الأجانب العديد من الآلهه المصرية لدرجة أن علماء المصريات وصفوا النوبين على أنهم أكثر مصرية من المصريين أنفسهم خلال الأسرة ال٢٥ وذلك فيما يخص عبادة الآلهه المصرية وخاصة الإله أمون.  كما انتشرت عبادة الآلهه المصرية أيضا خارج حدود مصر ألي أن وصلت الإلهه أيزيس للمملكة المتحدة ولديها معبد شهيرهناك.

 

من السهل تمييز الآلهه الأجنبية حتى وإن كان هناك العديد من الملامح المصرية في تمثيلهم لكن تظل الآلهه الاجنبية مميزة من حيث الملابس، الذقن العريض، التاج وغيرها. هناك العديد من الملوك المصرية مثل أمنحوتب الثالث قاموا بعبادة الآلهه الأجنبية مثل "أشتار" حيث أرسل الملك أمنحوتب الثالث للملك بوتاني يطلب منه أرسال تمثال للإله "أشتار" ليساعده في علاج الأمراض. مما يدل على أن معظم هذه الآلهه الأجنبية عُبدت بغرض الحماية والعلاج. 

 

سنستعرض سويا بعض الأمثلة للآلهه الأجنبية بمصر القديمة، الإلهه "أمسيمي" زوجه الإله "أبدميك", والتي لعبت دور الحامية وهي من أصول نوبية لذلك مركز عبادتها معبد الأسد بالسودان. تظهر بشكل أدمي وتتميز بزيها الغير مصري كما يعلو رأسها صقر كما هو الحال مع الإلهه المصرية "إمنتت". هناك أيضا واحدة من أوائل الآلهه الأجنبية التي عبدت بمصر القديمة "أنت" زوجة الأله "بال“, يذكر الملك رمسيس التاني في إحدي النصوص إنها أبنه الإله رع أو بتاح. تظهر أيضا بشكل أدمي حاملة الأسلحة لأرتباطها بالحرب. كانت مفضلة لدي الملوك المصريين لدرجة أن الملك رمسيس قام بتسميه أحدي بناته وأيضا حصانه علي أسم الإلهه. كما كان هناك الإله النوبي "إبادمك" والذي لعب دور الحامي في الحروب، كان النوبين معروفين بأحترافهم في أستخدام السهم والقوس في الصيد لذلك قام المصرين القدماء بضمهم إلي الجيش المصري وهذا يفسر ظهوره بالسهم والقوس. يظهر"إبادمك" برأس أسد وفي بعض الاحيان بثلاث رؤوس. ظهر الإله "أرسينوفس" بمعبد فيلة في مقصورته الخاصة على هيئة أدمية ويرتدي تاج "الأتف" وقرون الكبش وقرص الشمس وبيده علامة الحياة " العنخ". كل هذه الملامح المصرية القديمة في تمثيل الإله"أرسينوفس" مع غياب أي عنصر مميز للآلهه الاجنبية يؤكد ضرورة معرفة اللغة المصرية القديمة للتمكن من معرفة الإله وقراءة أسمه. بينما أنتشرت عبادة الإلهه " أسترتي" الكنعانية خلال الأسرة ال ١٨, هي أيضا إلهه الحرب وأبنه الإله رع حيث قُدمت كتعويض من الإله "رع" للإله "ست" عند خسارته العرش أمام الإله "حورس". تظهر"أسترتي" في معبد أدفو تقود العجلة الحربية، كما يمكن أن تأخذ هيئة أسد مجنح. وأخيرا الإلهه "قادش" المرتبطة بالإلهه سخمت، تظهر بشكل أدمي عارية تقف فوق جسد أسد والتي كانت جزء من ثالوث "من" و "راشت" و"قادش".

 

شكل.٩ الإله إري حمس نفرالمعروف بأرسينوفس بمعبد فيلة

هناك العديد من الآلهه الأطفال في مصر القديمة وعادة ما ينتهي أسمها بكلمة "غرد" والتي تعني الطفل في اللغة المصرية القديمة، فعلي سبيل المثال "حرغرد" و" أمون غرد”. كانت الآلهه الأطفال مرتبطة بالخصوبة والنساء والولادة. كما كان يُنظر للملك في مصر القديمة على إنه الإله الطفل حيث عُرف بكونه إبن الإله على الأرض. زخرت العديد من المعابد مثل أدفو ودندرة وأسنا بمناظر ولادة الآلهه الأطفال بينما يُقدم الملك لهم القرابين. تظهر الآلهه الأطفال عادةً بعلامات الطفولة المتمثلة في الضفيرة الجانبية والأصبع في الفم كما يحمل بيده طائر الرخيت. مثال لبعض هذه الآلهه الملك أمنحوتب الأول الذي تم تأليهه كإله طفل ويظهر على العديد من توابيت عصرالأنتقال الثالث كما يظهر بمعبد خونسو بالكرنك. في أحدي المناظر يقوم الكاهن "حري حور" بتقديم القرابين للآلهه "أمون" و"أمونت" والإله الطفل "أمنحوتب”. هناك العديد من الآلهه الاطفال المرتبطة بالإله حورس مثل "حر غرد" أبن الإله "اوزوريس" والإلهه "إيزيس" كما هو أيضا أبن الإله "مونتو" والإلهه "رتاوي" بمعبد ميدموت، أنتشرت عبادته بشكل كبير خلال العصر البطلمي. أرتبط الأله "حورس رع" بإله الشمس "أمون" لذلك يعلو رأسه قرص الشمس أو يظهر أحيانا برأس صقر مرتديا التاج المزدوج. يرجع الإله " حورس ابن ايزيس" للدولة القديمة كما يظهر بمعبد أدفو. بينما يظهر الإله" حورس سماتاوي" موحد الأرضين، أبن الإله "حورس" والإلهه "حتحور" بمعبد أدفو وكان له كهنته الخاصة.

 

والجدير بالذكر أن ما تم أستعرضه خلال هذه المدونة لا يغطي كل ما تم مناقشته خلال دورة الآلهه المصرية حيث تناول البروفسور كن جرفن ما يقارب من ٤٠ إله أسبوعيا، فلمعرفة المزيد أنصحكم بالمشاركة في حضور هذه الدورات التي يقدمها مركز مصر لما تحتويه من معلومات قيمة للغاية.

Mekal, Lord of Beth-Shean

 

This past week was the final session of the Egypt Centre’s short course on the Gods, Goddesses, and Demons of the Ancient Egyptians. For this session we examined foreign and child deities. At the end of each week, I would show an image of a “mystery deity” for participants to identify for the following week. These were quite difficult and included Iatdit (a goddess associated with Dendera), Biket (a female falcon-headed deity at Edfu), and Mestjet (a leonine deity depicted on a stela from Abydos). Thus, at the end of week 4, I showed them an image of the mysterious foreign deity (fig. 1). Around five people managed to correctly identify the deity as Mekal, with many others suggesting Reshep.

Fig. 1: Mekal, Lord of Beth-Shean

The primary evidence for the god Mekal is a limestone funerary stela, which was found in 1928 at Beth-Shean (northern Palestine) during excavations of the University of Pennsylvania Museum. The stela, which is now housed in the Israel Museum (IAA S-982), depicts an Egyptian architect named Amenemope and his son, Pareemheb, in the upper register worshipping a deity called “Mekal (mꜥ-kꜣr), the Great God, Lord of Beth-Shean”. The register below this depicts two figures (particularly destroyed) before three columns of hieroglyphs (fig. 2). Based on the palaeography of the hieroglyphs, the stela likely dates to the Nineteenth Dynasty.

Fig. 2: Mekal Stela

The stela features Egyptian, Asiatic, and mixed elements. This includes the was-sceptre and ankh-sign being held by Mekal, two well-known Egyptian items. The curved bead and horned headgear with streamers are characteristic of an Asiatic deity. The uniqueness of the stela—being the only depiction of Mekal known—has resulted on numerous discussions on its content. Many scholars focus on the identity of Mekal, linking him with the Canaanite gods Reshep or Baal, or even the Egyptian god Seth. This blog post does not attempt to add to the discussion, but instead will highlight a plaster cast of the stela (EC1305) in the Egypt Centre collection (fig. 3). Readers who are interested in the content of the stela should see the recent discussion by Levy, which is cited in the bibliography below.

Fig. 3: Plaster cast of the Mekal stela (EC1305)

EC1305 is a plaster cast of the Mekal stela, which arrived to Swansea in 1971 as part of the distribution of the Wellcome collection. The cast carries the Wellcome acquisition number A131980. The Wellcome flimsy slip for this number reveals that the cast was presented to the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum (WHMM) on the 26 November 1933 by “Mr. Starkie; by the Department of Antiquities of Jerusalem” (fig, 4). “Mr. Starkie” is none other than James Leslie Starkey (1895–1938), a noted British archaeologist of the ancient Near East and Palestine in the period before the Second World War (Bierbrier 2019, 442). He was the chief excavator of the first archaeological expedition to Lachish (Tell ed-Duweir) from 1932 to his death. The excavations at Lachish were funded (from 1932–1939) by the Wellcome-Marston Archaeological Expedition, which is presumably why Starkey was acquiring objects for the WHMM. In fact, the Egypt Centre has four copper alloy weapons/tools (W502–W505), which are listed as private purchases by Starkey while in Palestine during the 1932–33 season.

Fig. 4: Wellcome flimsy slip for the Mekal stela

Unfortunately, the life of Starkey was tragically cut short when, on the 10 January 1938, he was murdered on his way from Lachish to Jerusalem (fig. 5). Garfinkel (2016) notes that the murder has been presented as just one more of the insurgency episodes that were so common in those days. There was, however, a conflict at Lachish with the local landowners regarding the excavation of the site’s summit, the expedition’s preferred area. An amicable resolution of this conflict was never reached between the two sides, and only legal expropriation of this land by the Mandatory Government of Palestine enabled the excavation of the upper part of the site. The landowners never received full compensation for the expropriated land, undoubtedly a strong motive for revenge. Archives (WA/HSW/AR/Lac/B.13) in the Wellcome Collection provide details about Starkey’s murder, including reports and newspaper clippings of the time.

Fig. 5: Notice about Starkey (WA/HSW/AR/Lac/F.7)

The cast of the stela of Mekal has recently been moved to a new display case in the Egypt Centre called Egypt and its Neighbours. This case, which was funded by the Institute of Classical Studies, presents objects from Greece, Rome, Cyprus, Nubia, and the Ancient Near East. The installation of this case was completed just two weeks ago (fig. 6) and will be officially presented to the public by Dr Ersin Hussein at the Egypt Centre’s fiftieth anniversary conference on 15–17 September. Tickets for this free event are available via our Eventbrite page, so come along and join us if you can!

Fig. 6: Cast of the stela on display in the new Egypt and its Neighbours case

Bibliography

Bierbrier, Morris L. 2019. Who was who in Egyptology, 5th revised ed. London: Egypt Exploration Society.

David, Arlette and Ernest Bumann 2016. Mikael and Mikeset in Beth Shean. Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 42 (2015–2016), 113–123.

Eggler, Jürg 2006. Mekal, in: Iconography of Deities and Demons in the Ancient Near East: Electronic Pre-Publication: http://www.religionswissenschaft.uzh.ch/idd/
prepublications/e_idd_mekal.pdf

Garfinkel, Yosef 2016. The murder of James Leslie Starkey near Lachish. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 148: 2, 84–109.

Levy, Eythan 2018. A fresh look at the Mekal stele. Ägypten und Levante 28, 359–378.

Lipiński, Edward 2009. Resheph: a Syro-Canaanite deity. Studia Phoenicia 19; Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 181. Leuven: Peeters.

Münnich, Maciej M. 2013. The god Resheph in the Ancient Near East. Orientalische Religionen in der Antike; Oriental religions in Antiquity 11. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

Rowe, Alan 1928. The new discoveries at Beisan. Discovery 9 (101), 137–141.

Rowe, Alan 1928. The 1927 excavations at Beisan: final report. The Museum Journal 19 (2), 145–169.

Thompson, Henry O. 1970. Mekal: the god of Beth-Shan. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

Wimmer, Stefan Jakob 2000. El, Mekal and Ramses: the statue from Beisān again. Journal of Palestinian Archaeology 1 (2), 32–35.

Shapeshifters “avant la lettre”

Iris C. Meijer has loved and studied ancient Egypt since she was 10 years old. Although she holds a master’s degree in International Law, ancient Egypt will always be her true love. She has now lived in Egypt for well over 18 years. Active in animal rescue and animal welfare awareness education there, she is of course also fascinated with the relationship of the ancient Egyptians to their animal deities and to animals in general, as well as many other topics.

Anyone who has ever visited Egypt or museum housing ancient Egyptian antiquities, could be forgiven for thinking that the ancient Egyptians practiced zoolatry – the worship of animals. Scene after scene, object after object, one will find many weird and wonderful animal-headed or fully animal-form deities and spirits. But, as per usual with ancient Egypt, things are little bit more complex and multi-layered than they seem. 

In actual fact, except in rare cases that I will get to later, the ancient Egyptians did not worship the animals themselves, but took a certain essence or trait that they saw in that animal and used it to communicate an essential power of their divine forces (gods), or in ancient Egyptian: netjeru. The ancient Egyptians were very keen observers of nature and lived in much closer proximity to it than we do nowadays. That proximity could be hazardous or beneficial, or even both, depending on the animal in question of course. However, by assigning even the qualities of the most dangerous animals (lions, scorpions, snakes, etc) to their divinities, the ancient Egyptians hoped to be protected from this danger, or even harness these fearsome qualities for the good of the pharaoh, the country, and themselves (fig. 1). And using the images of the beneficial animals such as cows would make clear that the god or goddess concerned could bestow such blessings as well.

Fig. 1: The nurishing qualities of the cow on display with Hathor feeding Hatshepsut

Just take the lion, or even more common in the ancient Egyptian pantheon, the lioness, for instance. Lionesses are the providers of the pride, fearsome hunters and predators, supremely powerful. They are also the nurturers and bearers of offspring, and so they have two faces – one beneficial, one dangerous. When one thinks of a lioness goddess in the ancient Egyptian pantheon, Sekhmet (whose very name means “The Powerful One”) immediately springs to mind (fig. 2). However, in this fantastic course on Ancient Egyptian Gods and Goddesses, taught with an incredible wealth of knowledge by Dr Ken Griffin of the Swansea Egypt Centre, we find out that there is a multitude of goddesses who can and do appear with the head of a lioness! Dr Griffin, who is a hunter of sorts himself and takes delight in seeking out obscure gods and goddesses, showed us numerous goddesses who do or can appear like that. All of these, then, signify the essence or one particular essence of the lioness. And there are many! Nevertheless, unlike in true zoolatry, that does not mean that all lions and lionesses were sacred animals, not to be touched. On the contrary, they were hunted by elite hunting parties – even though Ramesses II was famous for having a pet lion that also went into battle with him, this did not mean they were not fair game in general.

Fig. 2: The lionine goddess Sekhmet (https://www.museivaticani.va/content/museivaticani/en/collezioni/musei/museo-gregoriano-egizio/terrazza-del-nicchione/statue-della-dea-leonessa-sekhmet.html)

The essence of the animal, which is what was revered or harnessed, not the animal itself. And it was symbolised by using the imagery of the animals for many gods and goddesses of the ancient Egyptian pantheon, which was incredibly large – we are talking over 1500 at least, some worshipped throughout all of Egypt, and some only in very specific geographical locations. The powerful venom-spitting quality of the cobra was put to use to protect the pharaoh, and so he appears with this symbol, called the uraeus, on his brow. The kindness and loving nurturing qualities of the cow were seen in the goddesses with mothering essences, and so they were often associated with that animal (fig. 3). The symbol of the scorpion was bestowed upon the Goddess Selket, who could protect against venoms of any kind.

Fig. 3: Hathor emerging from the Western mountain

 

The ultimate metamorphs, gods and goddesses could also shift into different forms, different animals, and even in what we see most often, a human body with an animal head. Shapeshifters supreme – and that is why it gets confusing when you really delve into the mystical magical world of ancient Egyptian religion. As I said before: if you see a lioness-headed lady with a solar disk on her head on a wall or as a statue, most will often immediately think of Sekhmet. But there are many others who can appear with this shape, the most well-known being Mut, Tefnut, and even Bastet, who most know as the much less ferocious cat deity (fig. 4). But as all cat owners know, there is a fierce lioness inside every cat, and provocation can bring her out in a flash! As this course drove home over and over again, one really needs to be able to find the names in the hieroglyphic inscriptions to identify the god or goddess in question without question – if there is any writing to tell us so. Some images will remain enigmatic, if there are no inscriptions or if they date so far back that they are prehistoric. The fact that we are talking about a period of time that spans well over three millennia, doesn’t simplify matters of course, because the nature of or the view on certain gods and goddesses could change over time, and some of them were merged, and others even almost completely subsumed by others who grew to greater prominence over this huge stretch of time.

Fig. 4: Lionine goddesses (L-R) Tefnut, Menhyt, Pakhet, Sekhmet, Mehyt

Is your head spinning yet (as mine was after each excellent session of this course)? Let me add another complicating factor to the mix. I think I have made quite clear now that ancient Egyptian religion did not practice zoolatry, right? But! There were sacred animals! So what was their role in this whole of things? 

Sacred animals are known for several deities – and interestingly enough, the animal that was scared was not always the animal that the deity was depicted as. A marvellous example can be found in the sacred bulls, of which there were three separate cults: the Apis Bull, the Buchis Bull, and the Mnevis Bull. They were chosen on the basis of specific physical characteristics, and were given a life of luxury and pampering at the temple before being buried in truly gigantic sarcophagi with all the trappings, including mummification. Even the mother of the Buchis Bull was held in high regard (fig. 5). They were seen as the incarnation of the “ba” (soul) or the “ka” (life force) of the God in question: the Apis for the God Ptah (who himself never appears with animal characteristics), the Buchis for Montu (who himself usually appears falcon-headed), and the Mnevis for Ra (who has human and animal-headed forms). That didn’t mean, however, that all bulls were sacred – in fact, they were often used for offerings to the gods in temple rituals, as other animals such as cats, dogs, jackals, ibises, and others were used as votive offerings (offerings of gratitude or to beseech favours) for gods they were associated with as well.

Fig. 5: Stela of the Mother of the Buchis Bull (W946)

The only way to understand all of these seeming contradictions and complications, is to look at ancient Egyptian worship not through modern eyes, but to try to approach it with open and, if we can, ancient eyes. It was a different world back then. Not everything was neatly categorised and labelled as this or that. In fact, the whole ancient Egyptian mindset was very different from ours. Whereas we look at the world as an either/or place (something is either good or bad, either white or black, either frightening or soothing), the ancient Egyptians had a more inclusive, what I call “and+and” way of looking at things. Things could easily be one thing, and the opposite at the same time. The world could have been created by a certain god, or by a different one, or by a group of gods (depending on where you lived and worshipped), but this did not lead to strife – it was accepted that matters had many different appearances, but that ultimately, the universe consisted of a balanced duality, of opposite concepts that needed each other to form one whole, to be complete (fig. 6). And therefore many different traits, aspects, gods, goddesses, sacred animals, and animals for offerings could all exist at the same time, side by side, each being as valid as the other, all there, all worthy of respect, admiration, fear, worship. There is of course much more to it than this brief observation – but that is a whole different blog article.

Fig. 6: Creator gods of the Ogdoad

For now, I would like to say thank you with great gratitude to Ken Griffin and Sam Powell of the Egypt Centre for a fabulous course full of new and wonderful information, delivered with great passion and finesse.

Sekhmet: Goddess of Destruction and Healing

The blog post for this week has been written by Pam Llewellin. Pam is a retired Practice Manager and an amateur Egyptologist with a special interest in the ancient religions and goddesses of ancient Egypt. She also co-administers two ancient Egyptian history groups for which she researches articles and artifacts of interest to post daily to the Groups.

We had the third session of the Egypt Centre’s online course this week, examining the gods, goddesses, and demons of ancient Egypt, where Dr Griffin provided us with many interesting and unusual anthropomorphic goddesses. Some that were so rare that they had limited representations, and many that would have been quite difficult to find without Dr Griffin’s information as to their whereabouts. Several of the goddesses Dr Griffin mentioned could also be depicted in lioness-headed form and, although she was not mentioned in this particular part of the course, I would like to devote this blog to the lioness-headed goddess, Sekhmet (fig. 1). Apart from her character and history, I have a very personal reason to find her fascinating and evocative, but more of that later.

Statue of Sekhmet (W496)

Sekhmet’s name was derived from the word sḫm, which translates into “power” or “might” and she would be known as “The Powerful One” and “The One who loves Maat”. Sekhmet is mostly depicted semi-anthropomorphic with the body of a woman and the head of a lioness. She wears the sun disk and uraeus upon her head and can be seated or standing, usually holding the ankh in her right hand and the sekhem-sceptre in her left as a symbol of authority and power (fig. 2). Some ancient Egyptians believed that Sekhmet was one of the daughters of Ra, the king of the men and gods who ruled with his daughter, Maat, the goddess representing truth and justice. Others suggest that she is the daughter of Geb (god of the earth) and Nut (goddess of the sky). In one creation myth, she is brought into existence after Ra gazed upon the earth. In another version, an ageing Ra was so angry with humankind, he ripped out his own eye and threw it at mankind where the divine eye becomes Sekhmet.

Fig. 2: Statue of Sekhmet (BM EA 45)

In yet another, and my personal favourite, Ra becomes so enraged at the way in which humankind was plotting against him and going against the laws of maat that he tore the cobra from the uraeus on his head and turned it into a lioness-headed goddess. She would become Sekhmet, his warrior/weapon, created in order to wreak revenge on mankind for their behaviour. She would have a reputation for fighting, not retreating, just like the cobra from whom she is created. What Ra creates though, is a goddess with a bloodlust for death and a destructive power that she is unable to control. In his paranoia that mankind is plotting against him, and seeking retribution for what he perceives as the misdeeds of mankind, Ra sends Sekhmet to teach the people a lesson. In her passionate loyalty to both her father and her devotion to the principles of the goddess Maat, she is happy to carry out her duty to her father and embarks on a bloodthirsty and frenzied rampage against mankind.

When Ra can see that the killing spree of his daughter is in grave danger of extinguishing the human race, he wanted to find a way to stop Sekhmet. He devises a plan to distract Sekhmet and dictates that beer to be brewed in huge quantities and turned red (some say with mandrake, some with pomegranate, some with ochre) and orders the priests to spill the mixture onto the earth so that it resembles human blood. Sekhmet drinks the mixture until she is very intoxicated and sleeps for three days until her bloodlust is abated, and humanity saved. One version of the aftermath hangover is that the first person she sees when she wakes up is the god Ptah and instantly falls in love with him. Their union (creation and destruction) creates Nefertum and so re-establishes Ma’at (fig. 3). Another version of the myth is when she becomes sober, her bloodlust has dissipated, and she becomes the gentle aspect of herself in the body of the goddess Hathor.

Faience statue of Sekhmet and Nefertum (W1163)

The saving of mankind was commemorated every year on a feast day of Hathor/Sekhmet. Everyone drank beer stained with pomegranate juice and worshipped “the mistress and lady of the tomb, gracious one, destroyer of rebellion, mighty one of enchantments”. A statue of Sekhmet would be dressed in red facing west, representing Upper Egypt, while the considered counterpart to Sekhmet, Bastet, was dressed in green and faced east, representing Lower Egypt.

Sekhmet was worshipped throughout Egypt, particularly whenever a wadi opened out in the desert edges. This is the type of terrain that lions are often found. Many of them having come from the desert in order to drink and prey upon cattle in the area. Some believe that the worship of Sekhmet was possibly introduced into Egypt from Sudan because lions are more plentiful in that region. Sekhmet’s main cult centre was located in Memphis, and was part of the Divine Triad of Ptah, Sekhmet, and Nefertum (fig. 4). Sekhmet, as the wife of Ptah, the ‘Creator’, and their son Nefertum is also closely associated with healers and healing. Some scholars believe that Sekhmet’s worship might pre-date Ptah by at least several hundred years, but because of the shift in power from Memphis to Thebes during the New Kingdom (1550–1069 BC) the Theban Triad made up of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu resulted in Sekhmet’s attributes being absorbed into that of the goddess Mut.

Ramesses III before the Memphite Triad (BM EA 9999)

Sekhmet is one of the oldest known deities (nṯr) in Egyptian history. She is the patron of the physicians, physician-priests, and healers. She could be known as the “lady of terror” or “the lady of life”. Even though, to the ancient Egyptians, Sekhmet was a terrifying goddess, they also believed that she had a cure for every problem including plague and disease. In order to stay on her good side, they offered food and drink, played music for her, and burned incense. They would whisper their prayers into the ears of cat mummies and offer them to Sekhmet. They believed that there was a direct connection to their deities and their prayers would be answered. Sekhmet is closely associated with kingship, and often described as the mother of Mahes, the lion god who was a patron of the pharaoh. Pharaohs Nuiserre and Ramesses II would have reliefs constructed showing them being suckled by Hathor whose title is “mistress of the house of Sekhmet”. Ramesses II would adopt her as a symbol of power in the friezes of the battle of Kadesh at Abu Simbel where she appears on the horse with her flames scorching the bodies of the enemy soldiers. But, of all the Pharaohs, Amenhotep III was the most obsessed with Sekhmet. He commissioned hundreds of statues of the goddess in Karnak Temple, and this is where I can tell you about my connection with Sekhmet (fig. 5).

 

Fig. 5: Statue of Sekhmet at Karnak

In week two of the course, Dr Griffin mentioned a little-known temple in Karnak that is not on the usual ‘tourist route’: the temple of Ptah. By coincidence, I had Googled information about Karnak temple before I visited Luxor and the article mentioned an amazing statue of Sekhmet in the temple of Ptah at Karnak (fig. 6). Our guide arranged for us to see it during a visit to the temple. When we arrived at the inner part of the temple, one of the permanent temple guards came up to me and gave me the key to open the door. Even with the door to the sanctuary open, the inside was quite gloomy and stiflingly hot. The large black granite or diorite statue of the lioness-headed goddess was at the back of the room. The energy in the room was palpable. Sekhmet was in a standing position on a plinth holding the ankh in her left hand and the sekhem-sceptre in her right. She was quite a bit taller than me and I’m 5’8”. Above her head was a small opening where the sun shone through onto the sun-disk and uraeus on the top of her head.

Fig. 6: Statue of Sekhmet

I completely lost all awareness of the other people in the room, until the guard came up to me and told me to place my left hand in front of Sekhmet’s forehead and move it slowly down the length of the statue until I reached her feet. Standing on my tip toes to reach, I placed my hand in front of her forehead. Even without physically touching her, I could feel how hot her statue was. At the same time, a gentle but unmistakable surge of energy came in a wave through my body from my head to my feet and I felt quite disorientated. It only lasted a few seconds, but it left me with a numb feeling in my left thigh (it lasted for three days – I could stick a pin in it and not feel anything!) and I was feeling completely manic and unsteady on my feet!

For three days, I could neither eat nor sleep, I was still manic, and I kept reliving in my head what had happened, trying to make some sense of it. No-one else in the party experienced anything similar, although some said they felt “something” but could not explain any further.

When I arrived home, I started to research more about Sekhmet, who she was, what she represented, anything I could find about her. As I read, I began to recognise aspects about her that I could somehow identify with and understand. I understood her loyalty and her passion, and I became increasingly aware, in a strange way, that I was “feeling” what it might be like to experience the energy one would need to “be” Sekhmet. It came as no shock to realise that she could represent that neglected and disowned part of my psyche that C.G. Jung described as the “shadow” self - that aspect which is an invisible but inseparable part of our psychic totality. It was an amazing feeling to be able to get to know more about myself through knowing her and I am so grateful for what I believe was the great gift I was given. Was the energetic exchange in the temple a healing portal for me? Most definitely. Can I explain it? Most definitely not!

Bibliography

Germond, Philippe 1981. Sekhmet et la protection du monde. Aegyptiaca Helvetica 9. Genève: Éditions de Belles-Lettres.

Graves-Brown, Carolyn 2010. Dancing for Hathor: women in ancient Egypt. London: Continuum.

Känel, Frédérique von 1984. Les prêtres-ouâb de Sekhmet et les conjurateurs de Serket. Bibliothèque de l’École des hautes études. Sciences religieuses 87. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

Wilkinson, Richard H. 2003. The complete gods and goddesses of ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson.

Anthropomorphic Deities and the God Seth

The blog post for this week is written by Judit Blair, who has a Masters in Ancient Near Eastern religions and a PhD in Hebrew and the Old Testament, both from the University of Edinburgh. Judith is a Teaching Fellow at the Centre for Open Learning (COL) Edinburgh University and a Tutor at Glasgow University where she teaches such courses as Ancient Egypt and the Bible, Aspects of Ancient Near Easter Demonology, and Ancient Monsters. Judith is also a member of Egyptology Scotland and the EES.

 

The second week of the latest Egypt Centre online course Gods, Goddesses and Demons of Ancient Egypt focused on male anthropomorphic deities. A total of thirty-seven gods and demons, as well as five deified humans were introduced in alphabetic order. The list included major gods such as Atum, Ra, Thoth, or Seth who were worshipped throughout Egypt and had many cult centres; minor deities, e.g. Bes, who although popular, had no formal cult, as well as deities such as Andjety (Busiris) and Ash (Western Desert), who were ancient, local gods, closely associated with and assimilated by other known deities (Osiris and Seth respectively). Ken introduced some rare and obscure figures too, for example Kheded (fig. 1), associated with fowling and marshes, of whom there are only about eight known attestations, Sehaqeq, the demon of headaches, who appears in a few Ramesside spells from Deir el-Medina and is once depicted as a young man with his tongue on his backside and covering his face with his hand (Lucarelli 2010: 4). Weneg, a son of Ra, appears only once in PT 952c and there are no known depictions of him.

Fig. 1: The god Kheded

The classification of some of these beings is ambiguous as some scholars regard them as gods while others would classify them as demons. A good example is Bes, who has been regarded as a popular household deity, a minor god (Hart 2005: 49; Wilkinson 2003: 102) as well as a spirit or benevolent demon (Gahlin 2001: 198). In this blog I would like to focus on my favourite deity, Seth.

Seth, Lord of Chaos

Seth had an ambiguous and complex character existing somewhere between the transitory and the everlasting, on the boundary that separates order from chaos (Hornung 1970: 158). His early significance is quite different from his later image. He was originally worshipped in Ombos; here he was regarded as the chief god of the Eastern Desert and the rich gold mines there (fig. 2). However, following the myth of his murder of his brother Osiris and his attempt to take the throne, he appears to represent evil, disorder and everything foreign (Turner 2012: 14).

Fig. 2: Wooden statue of Seth (W458)

Earlier works on Seth (e.g. Te Velde 1967) tend to focus on three specific aspects of the god’s character: murderer, homosexual, and lord of foreign lands. This approach sets him apart within the Egyptian pantheon and labels him as an “irregular deity whom the ancients had to deal with the best they could” (Shanley 2015: Abstract). More recent research has challenged these perceptions and shows that Seth, perhaps misunderstood, was an integral part of the Egyptian pantheon (fig. 3), and like the other members, had a “fluid and flexible character that changed in relation to the context in which he was found” (Shanley 2015: Abstract).

Fig. 3: The god Seth

The name of Seth and its meaning

The name of the god Seth occurs in many different forms in Egyptian texts. In the Pyramid Texts (except that of Unas where it is written with the Seth-animal hieroglyph) it is śtš. Te Velde (1967: 1) gives the spellings: śtš; stš; śtẖ; stẖ; ś(w)tḫ; śtḫ; ś(w)t(y); st(y); śt, arguing that these are all various spellings of the same name (fig. 4).

Fig. 4: Varient writings of the name Seth

The meaning of the name is uncertain, with various suggestions proposed. According to Te Velde (1967: 7) the Egyptians seem to have attached three meanings to his name: instigator of confusion, deserter, drunkard. The Seth-animal hieroglyph is used as a determinative in the writing of some words, which refer to something disruptive, fear-arousing and troublesome (Te Velde 1967: 22–23; McDonald 2007: 10).

Iconography

Seth can be represented in animal form (the Seth-animal) or as a man with the Seth-animal head or human head. The earliest occurrence of the Seth-animal is possibly on the mace-head of King Scorpion, although there are suggestions that it can be seen on some Nagada I finds (Te Velde 1967: 7–12). In semi-anthropomorphic form, Seth can be represented wearing the Double Crown. On a stela from the Manchester Museum (Stela of Anhotep, AN 4528) he is standing before an altar (fig. 5). The inscription at the top reads: “Seth of Nubt, lord of provisions, great of strength, powerful of arm” (Turner 2012: 74). A stela from Cairo Museum, which dates to the reign of Thutmose III shows a similar representation of Seth (fig. 5).    

                  

Fig. 5: Cairo Museum stela of Seth wearing the Double Crown (author's photo)

Seth is also often depicted together with Horus. For example, on the side of the throne of Senwosret I, the two gods are shown cooperating in the uniting of Egypt. The pharaohs Seti I, Ramesses II, and Ramesses III all have scenes/statues showing them being crowned by Horus and Seth (fig. 6). There are also examples of Seth with a bull’s head, a falcon’s head, and an ass’ head (Te Velde 1967: Plates VIII, IX and VI).

Fig. 6: Ramesses III with Horus and Seth. Cairo Museum (author's photo)

Worship

Seth is an ancient deity; some scholars have hypothesized that items possibly depicting the Seth animal dating from the Naqada I Period might point to a worship at this time (Turner 2012: 24). Close to the First Dynasty king Aha’s tomb ten donkey burials were discovered, and it is possible that as the donkey was an animal associated with Seth. These burials could be an indication of his worship (Turner 2012: 33). What is most interesting is the fact that the queens of the First Dynasty bore the title “she who sees Horus-and-Seth”. This title remained in use throughout the Old Kingdom. Two Second Dynasty kings favoured Seth; Peribsen’s serekh was topped by the Seth animal, and Khasekhemwy had both the Horus falcon and the Seth animal on top of his (Hart, 144). Seth appears on a number of monuments from the Middle Kingdom; Amenemhat I, Senwosret I, and Senwosret III all have scenes depicting Seth as a royal god who plays a part in the king’s sed-festival (Cruz-Uribe 2009: 211; Turner 2012: 50).

There is abundant evidence for the prominence of Seth in the New Kingdom. He played an important role in the sed-festival of the king. There is even evidence that he continued to be worshipped by the people during the Amarna Period. After this, Horemheb acknowledged the god, and, during the time of the Ramesside kings he became their family god, achieving perhaps the highest status he has ever held. The warrior kings of the New Kingdom recognised Seth’s war-like attributes, and had likened themselves to him on the battlefield (Turner 2012: 77–97; Te Velde 1967: 135–138). Ramesses II placed a great importance on the worship of Seth (fig. 7). His army consisted of four divisions, of Amun, Ra, Ptah and Seth. Seth was a state god.

Fig. 7: Ramesses II with Horus and Seth. Temple of Nefertari, Abu Simbel (author's photo)

The complex character of Seth is also reflected in his portrayal in the religious texts. The Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts portray him in a negative, positive, and neutral light. His power and strength are aspects emphasised in the positive texts along with his role as the protector of the solar bark. The Book of the Dead portrays Seth frequently in a negative light, but he is also shown as a positive force in the same spells. He is the defender of Ra’s barque against Apepi (fig. 8). His positive side was also reflected in the fact that his name was incorporated into people’s personal names, and this points to the fact that he was not only a state god but also venerated by the ordinary people of the period. However, after the New Kingdom the importance of Seth began to fade. During the Late and Graeco-Roman periods, Seth became demonised. Plutarch and other Greek writers identified Seth with Typhon. This name carried such “unfavourable” connotations that it could be regarded as a term of abuse (Te Velde 1967: 149).

Fig. 8: Seth spearing Apepi

References

Cruz-Uribe E. (2009). “Seth, God of Power and Might”. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 45: 201–226.

Gahlin L. (2001). Egypt. Gods, Myths and Religion. London: Lorenz Books

Hart G. (2005). The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses. London and New York: Routledge

Hornung E. (1970). “Review of Te Velde’s: Seth, God of Confusion”. Orientalistische Literaturzeitung 65: 17–20.

Lucarelli R. (2010). Demons (benevolent and malevolent). In Jacco Dieleman, Willeke Wendrich (eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles. http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz0025fks3  

McDonald, A. (2007). “A metaphor for troubled times: the evolution of the Seth deity determinative in the First Intermediate Period”. Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 134, 26–39.

Shanley A. J. (2015). God of Confusion?: An Examination of the Egyptian God Seth in New Kingdom Expressions of Royal Ideology. Phd Thesis, Emory University, Faculty of the James T. Laney School of Graduate Studies

Te Velde H. (1967). Seth, God of Confusion: A study of his role in Egyptian mythology and religion. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

Turner P. J. (2012). Seth – A misrepresented God in the Ancient Egyptian Pantheon? Phd Thesis, University of Manchester, Faculty of Life Sciences

Wilkinson H. R. (2003). The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson.