Pyramid Construction in the Old Kingdom

The blog post for this week is written by Jeanne Whitehurst, who has completed her Certificate of Egyptology from the University of Manchester. She moved to Egypt over twelve years ago, just before the revolution. Initially, she lived in Luxor, overlooking Karnak Temple, but now she lives in Aswan overlooking the First Cataract. She was extremely fortunate to have worked with Ted Brock on the sarcophagus of Merenptah (KV 8) as a volunteer. 

The Predynastic Period saw the production of fine pottery and other crafts. Writing had developed from rudimentary basic signs on jars to a hieroglyphic script. Khasekhemwy, the last king of the Second Dynasty and the Early Dynastic Period was probably one of the pharaohs to have united Egypt, his mudbrick and stone inner tomb at Abydos and stone statues together with his military prowess helped to lay the foundations for the achievements of the old Kingdom. The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2613–2181 BCE) is also known as the ‘Age of the Pyramids’ or ‘Age of the Pyramid Builders’ as it includes the great Fourth Dynasty when king Sneferu perfected the art of pyramid building, and the pyramids of Giza were constructed under the kings Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure.

How did pyramids develop? During the long reign of Djoser, the first king of the Third Dynasty, he moved the burial site of kings from Abydos to Saqqara (40 kilometres southwest of Cairo [25 miles]). his architect, Imhotep, designed a mastaba completely constructed of stone, then extended it in three phases to achieve a step pyramid. A mortuary complex consisting of chapels around the base, and a vast courtyard for the king’s festivals were also added (fig. 1). Finally, the whole complex was enclosed by a wall. The next development was at Meidum (“Sneferu Endures”) at the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty. This pyramid was designed in the image of the step pyramid by a successor of Imhotep, either constructed for Huni or Sneferu. It has been suggested that it was possibly started by Huni and finished by his son Sneferu, although Sneferu’s sons and other family members are buried nearby. This eight-layered structure is thought to be the first attempt to build a true pyramid, having a burial chamber above ground, and corbelling (arch-shaped) walls. Unfortunately, at some point in time, either during or after construction, it imploded, and its heavy outer layers eventually slid downwards leaving a square three-stepped core.

Fig. 1: The Step Pyramid complex

The next stage of development was a pyramid for king Sneferu at Dahshur, 40 kilometres (25 miles) south of Cairo. The Bent Pyramid (“The Southern Shining One”) possibly began as a much larger pyramid with an angle of about 54 degrees (fig. 2). However, structural problems caused mainly by the unstable sandy ground may have forced the builders to change the angle of the upper half of the pyramid to 43 degrees. To enter this pyramid today, you need to bend double until you get to the antechamber. The pyramid rises majestically to the king’s chamber above, and the brave can mount the five sets of steps, noticing the cedar wood struts across the space. When you breathlessly reach the top, you realise the small cramp chamber could not hold a human burial. The pyramid had now changed from a stairway to heaven to re-creating the primeval mound.

Fig. 2: The Bent Pyramid

The Red Pyramid, (“The Shining One”) situated one kilometre to the north of the Bent Pyramid, owes its modern-day name to the red sandstone that was used to construct its core. This was the perfect angled pyramid of 43 degrees. The angle allowed for a broader base and a more gentle incline, increasing the stability of the structure. Both Dahshur (Sneferu) pyramids were 105 metres (345 feet) in height (fig. 3). To enter this pyramid, you must ascend steps before the longest descent of any pyramid. The first chamber has magnificent cedar corbelled walls, as have the other two, consisting of eleven courses and climbing to a height of approximately 40 feet. The second chamber has similar dimensions to that of the first. It is exceptional in that it is one of the only pyramid chambers to lie directly beneath the centre point or apex of the pyramid. At the southern end, a staircase has been installed to allow access to the final chamber, the entrance for which is located approximately 25 feet above the floor of this second chamber. Both pyramids are well worth a visit, although you do need to be reasonably fit and not put off by the smell of ammonia from the bats!

Fig. 3: The Red Pyramid

The most famous pyramid and the largest is the Great Pyramid (“Horizon of Khufu”), which is the only surviving Wonder of the Ancient World. Originally it would have stood 146 metres high (479 feet) with a base of 230 metres (754 feet), even now with its reduced size and excellent quality Tura limestone from nearby quarries having been robbed over time, the immense size (average 3–4 tons) of the sandstone blocks and excellent workmanship is remarkable (fig. 4). The sides were orientated exactly towards the cardinal points at precisely 90 degrees. You have to admire how the blocks fit perfectly together, even up to the slanted ceiling, with the sarcophagus at the far end of the burial chamber creating an awe-inspiring moment for visitors!

Fig. 4: The Great Pyramid

At least four kings of the Fifth Dynasty moved their burial site to Abusir, which is located midway between Giza (to the north) and Saqqara (to the south). The first king to construct their pyramids here was Sahure, the second ruler of the dynasty (fig. 5). Many of these kings also built sun temples at Abu Ghurab, just slightly to the north. The remaining Fifth Dynasty kings returned to Saqqara for their burials.

Fig. 5: The pyramid of Sahure

The final innovation occurred with the pyramid of Unas, the last king of the Fifth Dynasty. Although the reign of Unas lasted for around thirty years, his pyramid (43 metres high) was the smallest in the Old Kingdom. However, the pyramid is not important for its construction but for the decoration inside. His pyramid was named “The Most Beautiful of Places”, which is very fitting. All the rooms inside the pyramid were built of fine limestone, except for the walls surrounding the sarcophagus where alabaster was used. The false door has an elaborate pattern design representing a reed mat and wood-frame enclosure, which was carved and painted. The ceiling of the burial chamber was painted with golden stars in a dark blue sky. Even more important is the decoration of the remainder of the burial chamber, the antechamber, and part of the horizontal passage that consists of vertical columns of meticulously carved hieroglyphs painted in blue (fig. 6). These columns contain the earliest known example of the so-called Pyramid Texts, the oldest known collection of religious texts known.

Fig. 6: Burial chamber of Unas

One of the chronological problems with the kings of the Old Kingdom is that the Horus and nesu bity (coronation) names are not always found together. Additionally, their position in history on the king lists, including Manetho (the priest whose dates and dynasties are used to date the reign of kings) are often incomplete. Djoser, c. 2670 BCE, was the first king of the Third Dynasty, reigning for over twenty years. Some sources, however, indicate that a king named Sanakht was the first ruler, but this claim is now challenged as Sanakht’s name is only known from two reliefs, the Abydos king list, and the Turin papyrus. His name does, however, appear later in the dynasty while he is also mentioned following Djoser in the Westcar Papyrus, which was written during the Middle Kingdom.

One of the most revered kings of Egyptian history was Djoser, who is also known through his nesu bity name Netjerkhet (“divine of his body”). He moved the capital to Memphis, near modern-day Cairo, and began commissioning his building projects, agricultural development, trade, and a rise in new cities. The stability of the country under Djoser was due in part to his success in securing his borders and then extending them. He became legendary for another reason, the re-building of the temple of Khnum on Elephantine Island in Aswan, which is said to have ended a seven-year famine. The erection of a famine stela, 2,500 after his death on Sehel Island and his name highlighted in red on the Turin Canon helped to elevate his status in Graeco-Roman times (fig. 7).

Fig. 7: The Famine Stela

Another revered ruler of the Old Kingdom was Sneferu. As well as having the first perfect pyramid built for him, his reign was a period of peace and prosperity in which he continuously sent mining campaigns to Sinai to discover and protect copper, gold, and turquoise. From the Palermo Stone record, we know he increased commercial exchange and foreign trade with surrounding countries such as Lebanon, where he sent large fleets of ships to import cedar wood for the manufacture of ships, royal doors, and in his pyramids at Dahshur. Most importantly, he secured the southern borders with Nubia. He was also the first king to have his nesu bity name, Sneferu, (“he of beauty”) to be inserted into a cartouche, a practice that became standard for the remainder of Egyptian history.